Rapid economic growth over the past 20 years, particularly in the larger economies, has been accompanied by increasing emissions of greenhouse gases and degradation of natural capital.

Economic growth in Asia and the Pacific depends on a growing use of energy resources, most of which being fossil fuels, that in turn has led to increasing emissions of greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gas emissions fuel global climate change that translates into devastating impacts in the region, particularly for the poorest. The increased risk of climatic disasters such as floods, drought, and typhoons or cyclones, together with the possibility of reduced access to water and other natural resources, could undo decades of effort to eradicate poverty.

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions

The rate of greenhouse gas emissions from the region has been growing since 1990, particularly in East and North-East Asia, where carbon emissions from China more than doubled between 2000 and 2008. Overall, between 2000 and 2008, emissions in Asia and the Pacific have been increasing almost twice as fast as the global average (5.4% change per annum as compared to 2.8%). The total emissions from the region in 2008 equalled almost half the world total as compared to 38% of the world total in 1990. On a per capita basis, the region-wide rate is still below the global average, although carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions per unit of GDP are higher.

In 2008, China was the single largest emitter of greenhouse gases worldwide – emitting 6.5 billion tons of CO₂ (0.4 billion tons more than all of North America). However, on a per-capita basis, North America emits 3.7 times more than China (China emits 4.9 tons per capita). Within the region, Brunei Darussalam is the highest emitter of greenhouse gases at 20 tons per capita of CO₂, followed closely by Australia at 19 tons.

Fortunately, the carbon intensity, or amount of greenhouse gases emitted per unit of GDP, has been steadily falling in the Asia-Pacific region since 1990. Recently, a number of large carbonemitting economies in the region have instigated policies and reforms to reduce their CO₂ intensity by improving energy efficiency in various sectors and increasing the use of renewable energy. China, India, Indonesia, Marshall Islands, Maldives, Mongolia, Papua New Guinea, the Republic of Korea and Singapore have introduced voluntary targets to reduce CO₂ emissions or reduce the consumption of fossil fuels.¹ In addition, fuelled by volatile and high oil prices, domestic energy prices are changing which may reinforce policies to reduce carbon emission.

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) and sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emissions

Nitrous oxide (N₂O), a greenhouse gas produced by agriculture, motor vehicles and other combustive sources, emissions have been rising steadily in Asia and the Pacific and globally as well. Asia and the Pacific contribute 43% of the global N₂O emissions; on a per capita basis, the regional average is still lower than the global average.

Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emissions, which lead to acid rain and can harm human health, have increased in Asia and the Pacific in the last two decades. In the rest of the world, however, SO₂ emissions have been decreasing on average, driven mainly by pollution-control measures in many developed countries. SO₂ emissions are generally produced from the combustion of fossil fuels, particularly coal, and from some industrial processes such as petroleum and metal refining, metal smelting, and pulp and paper production. Therefore the most significant emissions from the region come from coal-burning developing countries; in particular China contributes 53% of the emissions in the region.

Figure II.1 – CO₂ emissions, Asia-Pacific subregions and the rest of the world, 1990-2008

Figure II.2 – CO₂ emissions per unit of GDP, Asia-Pacific subregions, 1990-2008

In a recent study² on concentrations of air pollutants in Asian cities, 40% of the 213 surveyed cities showed annual average SO₂ concentrations lower than half the WHO standard (20 μg per cubic metre as a 24-hour mean) and signs of a marked decrease in SO₂ between 1993 and 2000. The study also found that for 24% of the cities, the annual average SO₂ concentrations exceeded the WHO 24-hour standard. Unfortunately, since 2001, emissions have begun to rise.

Figure II.3 – Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emissions, Asia-Pacific region and the rest of the world, 1990-2005

Concentrations of particulate matter (PM₁₀)

Concentrations of particulate matter (PM₁₀) in Asian and Pacific cities remain one of the most problematic of local air-pollution issues and are higher than the global average, although from 1990 to 2006 PM₁₀ concentrations declined by 38%. As PM₁₀ refers to particulate matter that is less than 10 microns in size, the small size of the particles increases the risk of their becoming embedded in the lungs and throat when inhaled, leading to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. The annual average of PM₁₀ concentrations in 230 cities between 1993 and 2008 was 3 times the recommended WHO standard (20 μg per cubic metre, annual mean).² Moreover, the annual average PM₁₀ concentration in the 230 cities monitored in 2008 was 4.5 times the WHO standard, at 89.5 micrograms per cubic metre.

Figure II.4 – Concentration of particulate matter (PM₁₀) in urban areas, Asia and the Pacific and the world, 1990-2006

Ozone

Ozone is a concern for two reasons: the depletion of ozone in the stratosphere and ground level ozone as a pollutant. In the stratosphere, ozone protects living organisms from the sun’s radiation, but ozone depleting substances such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have had significant impacts on depleting the stratospheric ozone layer for a number of years. Fortunately, global environmental agreements have led to significant reductions in the use of ozone-depleting substances, from a regional average of 70 grams per capita in 1995 to just 7.8 in 2008. The consumption of ozone-depleting substances per unit of GDP has been even more dramatic, dropping across the region from 41 grams per PPP$1,000 (2005 prices) in 1990 to just 1.4 in 2008.

Ground-level ozone is a local pollutant formed primarily from a complex series of chemical reactions in cities among air pollutants produced by motor vehicles and industry, in particular hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. The impact of ozone smog on human health includes respiratory problems. Unfortunately, this substance is not sufficiently monitored in many countries and data is lacking in this regard.

² Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center (2010). Air Quality in Asia: Status and Trends, 2010 Edition. Pasig City, Philippines.

³ Indonesia, Coordinating Ministry for Economic Affairs, “Government explanation on the reduction of fuel subsidy and other related policies”, Oleh Administrator (Jakarta, 23 May 2008). Available from www.esdm.go.id/news/53-pressrelease/1757-government-explanation-on-the-reduction-of-fuelsubsidy-and-other-related-policies-.pdf.

⁴ Available from www.gtz.de/en/themen/29957.htm.

⁵ Tim Bulman, Wolfgang Fengler and Mohamad Ikhsan, “Indonesia’s oil subsidy opportunity”, Far Eastern Economic Review, vol. 171, No. 5 (7 June 2008).