Ministerial Conference on
Environment and Development
in Asia and the Pacific 2000
Kitakyushu, Japan 31 August - 5 September 2000
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 | The skin of the sea is only centimetres thick, but because
it covers 71% of the surface of the planet, it is the largest single
ecosystem.| The upper meter of seawater is divided in to sublayers,
each with its own biological and chemical features. Within the surface
layer, (the upper 60 centimetres), the first 0.05 millimetres contains an
especially dense concentration of minerals, organic chemicals, protozoans
and micro-organisms. The upper 70 millimetres has dense concentrations of
slightly larger organisms, including fish eggs, fish larvae, and
crustaceans. Larger, floating jellyfish and seaweeds are found in the upper
30 centimetres. Plus, there are many transient creatures that move up and
down in tune to the sunlight. | Some animals live their whole lives on the surface of the
sea. These creatures are known as neuston, and include such things as
the blue-bottle stinger, and many microscopic plants and animals. | A large number of sea creatures spend the most sensitive
times of their lives at the surface of the sea. Eggs of many species of fish
and invertebrates are shed into the sea by their parents. These eggs contain
fats, so they float to the surface. There, they develop into tiny swimming
creatures called larvae and move deeper into the water. But for a few hours
or days, they inhabit the skin of the sea, and may return to this layer to
feed as they grow older. | |
| Eggs and the very young stages of life are very fragile and
sensitive to environmental poisons. Dr. Hardy discovered that fish eggs that
develop where the surface of the sea is polluted either die, develop slowly,
or become malformed.| The plants and animals that live in the water excrete many
organic compounds, such as amino acids, proteins, and fatty acids that serve
as nutrients for bacterial growth. These rise to the surface where they are
concentrated the thin organic skin of the water. This happens in fresh water
as well as salt water. | When water creatures - from microscopic to large - die, the
oils in their bodies may float to the surface before they completely
decompose. | The thin layer of oily material on the surface of the sea
is an important part of the water cycle as it helps control the rate of
evaporation. It is also a highly nutritious food source for many species of
microscopic plants and animals called Plankton. On calm days we say the sea
is "slick calm" or "oily calm" because the microscopic
layer of oil is evenly distributed on the surface. | Wind pushes the oil into long ribbons of calm water known
as "wind slicks" or "wind rows." You can see these on
most days when looking at the sea from an overlook or from a boat. Samples
show the plankton and nutrients are many thousands of times more
concentrated in the windrows than in water only a few centimetres deeper or
in adjacent areas. | Unfortunately, the oily surface of the sea is also the
first to receive pollutants from the atmosphere. Scientists believe more
than 30 per cent of all ocean pollution comes from tiny particles of dust
and smoke in the air - often called fallout. This settles on the most
sensitive and vulnerable part of the ocean - its skin. The pollutants
contain pesticides, heavy metals, and industrial and motor vehicle toxins
such as sulphuric acid, chlorine, and dioxin. | Dr. Hardy says, "In the more than 200 microlayer
samples we have collected from rivers, estuaries, bays and oceans, there is
a sadly consistent picture: the surface microlayer is becoming a soup of
toxic metals, organic pollutants, bacteria, pesticide residues, and the
by-products of combustion-derived hydrocarbons from cars, trucks, aeroplanes,
refuse incinerators, and power plants. Coastal sewage waste-water
discharges, runoff from municipal and agricultural drainage systems and
direct industrial discharges into rivers contribute to the
contamination." | "A polluted surface microlayer has the potential to
poison much of the complex marine food web, including fish, crustaceans,
whales, and seabirds. "Destruction of the microlayer may alter the
exchange of materials between the atmosphere and the ocean, thereby
affecting global climate." | Oil pollution also floats on the surface of the sea and
quickly contaminates this fragile environment with chemical toxins. Oil,
even a very thin layer, spreading over the surface of the water at the same
time fish are releasing their floating eggs can devastate their reproductive
success. | Heavy metals, and other toxins, are hundreds of times more
concentrated in the surface windrows of the sea than in deeper water. He
found pesticides concentrated millions of times greater than in the rest of
the water. | As the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere breaks down from
air pollution, ultraviolet radiation increases. This has been shown to have
a severe impact on the phytoplankton and the eggs of sea creatures when they
concentrate at the surface. | The surface of the sea is a critical habitat for most of
the world's major fish species as well as the invertebrates - like lobsters,
shrimp, oysters, clams and mussels. If the toxins are killing these when
they are eggs or when they are very young, even a small fishing pressure
could result in rapid failure of the fishery. | |
SELECTED PUBLICATIONS ON
THE AQUATIC SURFACE MICROLAYER
JOHN T. HARDY
Center for Environmental Sciences
Huxley College of Environmental Studies
Western Washington University
Bellingham, Washington 98225-9181
360-650-6108
Fax 360-650-7284
jhardy@.cc.WWU.edu
JOURNAL ARTICLES & BOOK CHAPTERS
Hardy, J.T. 1997. Biological effects of chemicals in the sea-surface microlayer. In: The Sea Surface and Global Change. P. Liss and R. Duce (eds.). Cambridge University Press. p. 339-370.
Hardy, J.T., K.A. Hunter, D. Calmet, J.J. Cleary, R.A. Duce, T.L. Forbes, M.L. Gladyshev, G. Harding, J.M. Shenker, P. Tratnyek and Y. Zaitsev. 1997. Biological effects of chemical and radiative change in the sea surface. In: The Sea Surface and Global Change. P. Liss and R. Duce (eds.). Cambridge University Press. p. 35-70.
Hardy, J.T. and J. Cleary. 1992. Surface microlayer contamination and toxicity in the German Bight. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 91: 203-210.
Hardy, J. T. 1991. Where the sea meets the sky. Natural History. May.
Hardy, J.T., E.A. Crecelius, L.D. Antrim, S.L. Kiesser, V.L. Broadhurst, P.D. Boehm and W.G. Steinhauer. 1990. Aquatic Surface Contamination in Chesapeake Bay. Mar. Chem. 28: 333-351.
Hardy, J. T. and C.W Apts. 1989. Photosynthetic carbon reduction: high rates in the sea‑surface microlayer. Mar. Biol. 101: 411-417.
Hardy, J.T., J.A. Coley, L.D. Antrim, and S.L. Kiesser. 1988. A hydrophobic large-volume sampler for collecting aquatic surface microlayers: characterization and comparison to the glass plate method. Can. Jour. Fish. Aquatic Sci. 45 (2): 822-826.
Hardy, J.T. 1987. Anthropogenic alteration of the sea surface. Guest Editorial. Mar. Environ. Res. 23: 223-225.
Hardy, J.T., S.L. Kiesser, L.D. Antrim, A.I. Stubin, R. Kocan and J.A. Strand 1987. The sea-surface microlayer of Puget Sound: Part I. Toxic effects on fish eggs and larvae. Marine Environ. Res. 23: 227-249.
Hardy, J.T., E.A. Crecelius, C.W. Apts and J.M. Gurtisen 1987. Sea-surface contamination in Puget Sound: Part II. Concentration and distribution of contaminants. Marine Environ. Res. 23: 251-271.
Cross, J.N., J.T. Hardy, J.E. Hose, G.P. Hershelman, L.D. Antrim, R.W. Gossett and E.A. Crecelius. 1987. Contaminant concentrations and toxicity of sea-surface microlayer near Los Angeles, California. Mar. Environ. Res. 23: 307-323.
Word, J.Q., J.T. Hardy, E.A. Crecelius, and S.L. Kiesser 1987. A laboratory study of the accumulation and toxicity of contaminants in the sea surface from sediments proposed for dredging. Mar. Environ. Res. 23: 325-338.
Riznyk, R.Z., J.T. Hardy, W. Pearson and L. Jabs 1987. Effects of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons on sea‑surface microlayer phytoneuston. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 38: 1037-1043.
Hardy, J.T. and J.Q. Word. 1986. Sea surface toxicity in Puget Sound. Puget Sound Notes. U.S. EPA Region 10, Seattle, WA, November: 3-6.
Hardy, J. T., C. W. Apts, E. A. Crecelius and N. S. Bloom. 1985. Sea‑surface microlayer metals enrichments in an urban and rural bay. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 20: 299‑312.
Hardy, J. T., C. W. Apts, E. A. Crecelius and G. W. Fellingham. 1985. The sea surface microlayer: fate and residence times of atmospheric metals. Limnol. Oceanogr. 30(1): 93‑101.
Hardy, J. T. and C. W. Apts. 1984. The sea surface microlayer: phytoneuston productivity and effects of atmospheric particulate matter. Mar. Biol. 82: 293‑300.
Hardy, J. T. 1982. The sea‑surface microlayer: biology, chemistry, and anthropogenic enrichment. Prog. Oceanogr. 11:307‑328.
Hardy, J. T. 1973. Phytoneuston ecology of a temperate marine lagoon. Limnol. Oceanogr. 18(4):525‑533.
CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, TECHNICAL REPORTS & THESES
Hardy, J.T. 1998. Where the sea meets the sky: life at the air-water interface. Keynote Address. Thirty-Third European Marine Biology Symposium. Wilhelmshaven, Germany. September 7-11.
Christner, K. Clement. 1995. Contamination of the water surface of Lake Whatcom, Washington. Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University. 76 pp.
Hardy, J.T., S. Fowler, A. Price, J. Readman, B. Oregioni, E. Crecelius and W. Gardiner. 1993. Environmental assessment of sea surface contamination in the Gulf. Final Report on the Joint IOC/IUCN Gulf Mission August, 1992. UNESCO, IOC, Marine Pollution Unit, Paris and IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 29 pp.
Gardiner, W. 1992. Shoreline deposition of contaminated surface film and its effect on intertidal organisms. Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University. 72 pp. + 14 Appendices.
Hardy, J.T. 1991. Microlayer analysis and toxicity testing: a sensitive monitoring tool. 12th Annual Meeting. Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. Seattle, November 3-7.
Gardiner, W.W. and J.T. Hardy. 1991. Contaminated surface films: deposition and toxicity in intertidal habitats. 12th Annual Meeting. Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. Seattle, November 3-7.
Hardy, J.T. 1989. Overview and phytoneuston. In: Puget Sound Microlayer Workshop. Summary Report. Puget Sound Estuary Program and U.S. EPA., Region 10. EPA 910/9-90-008. May. 17 pp.
Hardy, J.T. and J.N. Cross. 1989. Contamination and toxicity of the sea-surface microlayer. In: Proceedings, Conference on the Bioavailability of Toxic Contaminants in the San Francisco Bay Delta. Berkeley, October 26-27, 1988. Aquatic Habitat Institute, Richmond, CA 94804.
Hardy, J. and L. Antrim. 1988. Distribution and biological effects of sea-surface contamination in Puget Sound. Proceedings: Puget Sound Research Conference, First Annual Meeting, Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, Seattle, Washington, March 18-19.
Hardy, J.T. and L.D. Antrim. 1987. Sea-surface microlayer: sampler evaluation and toxicity in relation to the Florida current. Final Report to U.S. EPA, Contract 2311112237, WA 62, Pacific Northwest Laboratories. #PNWD-1087. Richland, Washington.
Hardy, J.T., E.A. Crecelius, L.D. Antrim, V.L. Broadhurst, P.D. Boehm, W.G. Steinhauer. 1987. Aquatic surface contamination in Chesapeake Bay. Final Report to State of Maryland, Department of Natural Resources. Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.
Hardy, J.T. 1987. Contamination and toxicity of the sea-surface microlayer of Puget Sound. In: Gray, R.H. et al. (eds.). Health & Environmental Research on Complex Organic Mixtures. Twenty-Fourth Hanford Life Sciences Symposium. Conf-851027. Pacific Northwest Laboratory. Richland, Washington. pp. 643-655.
Hardy, J.T. and L.D. Antrim. 1986. Refinement of methods for determining the toxicity of emissions from at-sea incinerators: evaluation of a microlayer sampler and toxicity tests at sea. Report on Contract 68-03-3319, WA 36-3 to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. Battelle Northwest Laboratories, Richland, Washington, December 30.
Hardy, J.T. 1986. Standard operating procedures for the incineration-at-sea research program: 4-29, Collecting samples of aquatic surface microilayers; 4-31 Analysis of samples for metals; 4-30 Sampling and analysis of microorganisms; 3-11 Conducting acute static toxicity tests with sea urchin embryos. Report to U.S. EPA, OMEP, Washington, D.C. Battelle Northwest Laboratories, Richland, Washington.
Hardy, J.T. and J.B. States. 1986. Proceedings of the workshop on the sea‑surface microlayer in relation to ocean disposal. Final Report to Office of Marine and Estuarine Protection, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. BN-SA-2367, Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Richland, Washington.
Hardy, J.T. and C.E. Cowan. 1986. Model and assessment of the contribution of dredged material disposal to sea‑surface contamination in Puget Sound. Final Report to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Seattle, Washington. Pacific Northwest Laboratory Report No. PNL‑5804, Richland, Washington.
Hardy, J.T., E.A. Crecelius and R. Kocan. 1986. Concentration and toxicity of sea‑surface contaminants in Puget Sound. Final Report to NOAA, OAD, Rockville, Maryland. PNL‑5834, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.
Hardy, J.T. 1985. Technical support for the ocean incineration regulatory development process: the sea surface microlayer. Battelle Northwest Tech. Report. on Contract No. 68‑01‑6986. WA 24. to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Stubin, A. 1985. Effects of sea‑surface contaminants on eggs and larvae of sand sole (Psettichthys melanostictus). M.S. School of Fisheries, University of Washington. 72 pp.
Valett, M.K. 1984. Diel changes in marine neuston and plankton communities of Sequim Bay, Washington. M.S. Department of General Science, Oregon State University.
Hardy, J. T. and C. W. Apts. 1983. Fate and effects of heavy metals in the sea surface microlayer. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Heavy Metals in the Environment, Vol. 2, pp. 1116‑1119. Heidelberg. World Health Organization, Commission of European Communities, CEP Consultants and Publ., Edinburgh.
Hardy, J.T. 1971. Ecology of phytoneuston in a temperate marine lagoon. Ph.D. Thesis. Unversity of Washington. 160 pp
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