VI. HARMONIZING THE NEEDS OF STAKEHOLDERS WITH NATIONAL CAPABILITIES AND SPACE SYSTEMS
42. Among the various factors that enable harmonization
of the needs of stakeholders with institutional capability
and space systems, the role of space agencies – in both
the public and private sectors – has been critical. Their
roles are driven by the dynamics of technology trends, new
policy regimes with regard to data and the costs, accessibility
and other associated services. It is therefore important
to examine the changing roles of space agencies, especially
those engaged in Earth observation and satcom, so that appropriate
recommendations can be made towards harmonization.
A. Earth observation
satellites: emerging trends
1. The role players:
space agencies
43. Earth observation is experiencing a paradigm shift
worldwide, with endorsement of Earth observation for Earth
system studies and global change as a public good activity
and the shift of high-resolution imaging to the commercial
domain. The trend is also towards smaller missions, rather
than the typical “one-stop-shop” missions of the past. The
international scenario of Earth observation is likely to
be dominated by the missions of NASA/NOAA, ESA, JAXA, CNES,
CSA/CCRS, ISRO and a few commercial satellite operators.
In addition to these, China/INPE, Australia, Taiwan Province
of China and many first-entry missions are in operation
and other countries have planned their own missions. The
data cost is a major debate, and there is a delicate balance
between cost-recovery and cost-of-fulfilling-user-request
approaches that agencies adopt.
44. With regard to meteorological observations, the polar
and geostationary platforms have continued to provide cloud
pictures and various meteorological observations through
a wide array of instruments. NOAA, GOES, Meteor, Feng Yung,
Meteosat, INSAT and Metop, to name only a very few, are
providing meteorological images and data to the disaster
management community in the region.
2. Trends in Earth
observation missions
45. In the 1980s, Earth scientists had a significant influence
on Earth observation mission design and emphasized the need
to study coupled Earth processes, so they asked for “multidisciplinary”
observing systems with multiple instruments and covering
a range of land, ocean and atmosphere parameters at the
same time, rather than specific parameters. In the mid-1990s,
several private enterprises – Space Imaging, Orbital Sciences,
DigitalGlobe (until recently Earthwatch), Boeing and others
– obtained licences from the Government of the United States
to operate high-resolution Earth observation satellites,
mostly with around 1-m resolution capability. Radarsat International
is another commercial operator engaged in marketing Radarsat
data. These companies apparently have diverted advanced
technologies (hitherto in the defence domain) to civilian
Earth observation satellites and planned for low-weight,
agile satellites with the ability to view “very small” areas
of the Earth (~ 10*10 km scenes), thus making a niche for
themselves that could replace aerial photography. The status
of Earth observation missions and the respective agencies
are summarized annex IV.
46. Based on the analysis of existing trends, it seems
that multispectral imaging is still the core of most missions
and the trend is to reach high resolutions – stabilizing
at about 2-10 m with moderate swaths (about 40-150 km).
The fusion of high-resolution multispectral images with
high-resolution panchromatic images is likely to result
in potent data sets not only for disaster management related
applications but also for precision, large-scale mapping
applications.
47. An emerging trend is the constellation of microsatellites
dedicated for applications related to disaster management.
The Disaster Monitoring Constellation (DMC), for example,
is a novel international cooperation in space, formed through
an international partnership between organizations in Algeria,
China, Nigeria, Thailand, Turkey, the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Viet Nam. The status
of the DMC Consortium is briefly summarized in (table 4).
DMC satellites can operate alone or in tandem and provide
a global daily revisit at
Table 4. Status of the Disaster
Monitoring Constellation
Source: www.sstl.co.uk
3. Earth observation
data acquisition and dissemination scenario
48. Advances in storage technology and processing and network
technology are rendering ground stations less critical for
global Earth observation missions – most missions
are planning for high-volume mass storage devices and centralized
data archival and dissemination systems. Maintaining a global
archive of images and establishing time-series data sets
are increasingly being employed by many space agencies.
Dissemination of Earth observation data (even with high
resolution and large volume) on networks is gradually becoming
the order of the day.
49. With respect to data acquisition and dissemination
two major trends that are developing. First is a global
archive of Earth observation data and their distribution
through a data information system (DIS) for science users;
the second is the commercial distribution of Earth observation
data through a “distributed” acquisition/distribution
system on a cost-recovery basis, either partial, as in cost-of-fulfilment-of-user-request
(COFUR) or total recovery. Yet another trend that has been
adopted of late is the direct reception of data by the user
through low-cost data reception terminals. These terminals
provide flexibility to users so that they can receive online
the data they need and choose, directly to a PC or workstation
for immediate analysis.
4. Commercialization
and global transparency
50. With its considerable potential for all kinds of uses,
the market for satellite imagery is already growing. Over
the past decade it has more than tripled in size, jumping
from US$ 39 million in 1988 to US$ 139 million in 1998.
It is estimated that by 2005 the market will reach US$ 420
million (Worldlink, n.d.). The emerging market prospects
have brought the commercial remote sensing industry into
the game. Soon, at least 11 companies from five different
countries are expected to have high-resolution commercial
remote sensing satellites in orbit. These new satellites
will have capabilities approaching those of military spy
satellites, but with one key difference: their images will
generally be available to anyone able to pay for them.
51. This new technology raises a host of policy concerns
with which Governments, business executives and analysts
around the world are just beginning to grapple. Public availability
of timely, high-resolution imagery represents a notable
break with the past. On 25 April 2003, the United States
announced a new commercial remote sensing policy that directs
all United States agencies, defence and civil, to look first
to the private sector to meet their Earth imaging needs.
The policy also eliminates prior technical constraints (on
satellite resolution, for instance) and eases export licensing
of remote sensing technology (United Nations, 2000). The
era in which only a handful of governments had access to
high-resolution imagery is becoming one in which every Government,
business and non-Governmental organization will have access.
52. In the realm of GIS, recent developments are more user-friendly,
with better ease in learning, web - accessibility and cost-effectiveness.
The addition of the Amber flash flood forecast model to
ArcView is good evidence of mainstream GIS capabilities
in the area of flood management. Internet mapping capabilities,
web - based systems such as Mapquest, and more on-line source
data, available gratis or at a modest cost, have increased
the accessibility of GIS data. The release of Microsoft
MapPoint, its integration with Microsoft Office and the
downloadable add-in that permits importation of MapInfo
and shape files suggest that Microsoft may eventually integrate
more substantial GIS capabilities into Microsoft Office
(ESCAP, 2003).
B. Satellite communication
53. The role of satellite communication (sitcom) continues
to grow, in spite of the efforts being made by developing
countries to promote terrestrial systems. However, traditional
satellite communication operators, such as Intelsat, Inmarsat,
Intersputnik and New Skies, have been transformed from intergovernmental
organizations into commercial service providers. They exert
considerable influence in satcom markets. In Asia and the
Pacific, there are strong regional and subregional players,
such as Asia Satellite, APT Satellite and Shin Satellite.
Several countries in the region, such as Australia, China,
India, Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines and the Republic
of Korea, have their own domestic satellites, and some of
them are making the transition to regional or subregional
domains.
54. The Tampere Declaration brought several issues into
focus: (a) the combined use of terrestrial and satellite
communication facilities to predict, monitor and respond
to major disasters throughout the world; (b) the various
mechanisms within the office of the United Nations Disaster
Relief Coordinator for international sharing of communication
sources, training of personnel and coordination of disaster
relief efforts; and (c) the removal of unwanted regulatory
barriers to rapid dissemination of information and effective
use of communication resources essential for disaster management.
With the changing domains of role players, it has become
possible for private industry, through United Nations agencies
and also on their own, to start promoting cost-effective
communication solutions for disaster management. For example,
5,000 of the 80,000 Inmarsat mobile communication terminals
are used in disaster management by international organizations,
including the United Nations, Red Cross and other charity
agencies. The United Nations disaster response initiative
“First on the Ground”, in cooperation with the
communication company Ericsson, is of considerable significance,
because it envisages providing mobile and satellite telephone
links, as well as microwave links, for humanitarian relief
workers in areas affected by natural disasters and emergencies
(United Nations, 2000).
1. Modes of information
dissemination: multitasking of satcom networks
55. Digital divides affect information dissemination.
Usually, the flood and drought prone also lack an information
dissemination infrastructure. The interoperability of various
communication systems including the Internet, mobile phones,
fax, e-mail, radio and television is increasingly becoming
functional, and access to voice, video and data in an interactive
manner is always desirable to user communities. Five modes
of information dissemination include documents/texts, the
Internet, Intranets, wireless broadcasts and fixed telecommunications.
Each of the five modes of dissemination has different strengths
and weaknesses (table 5). These modes complement one another.
The Internet offers high interactivity and high connectivity
at a basic cost. Intranets offer high interactivity and
bandwidth for a price. Printed materials provide high reliability
and high coverage at a low cost (GDIN, 1997).
Table 5. Modes of information dissemination
Source: GDIN, 1997. Harnessing Information
and Technology for Disaster Management. The Global
Disaster Information Network (GDIN), Disaster Information
Task Force Report. November 1997. United States Department
of Commerce.
56. Multitasking of satcom networks enables more than one
mode of information dissemination, depending on the basic
communication infrastructure in the region. The availability
of broadband satellites or use of mobile VSAT networks provides
the enabling infrastructure. However, the quality of services
in tune with community needs during or after a flood or
drought holds the key. Governmental policies and institutional
arrangements facilitate such efforts.
2. Enabling mechanisms
57. It is clear that market forces are the primary driver
of space system developments. All the limitations of Earth
observation pertaining to spatial resolution, value addition
and product generation are addressed to a large extent.
Of course, the constraints pertaining to all-weather-capability
microwave data (because Radarsat-1 is nearing the end of
its designated mission life and Envisat cannot fill the
gap because of its insufficient repeat cycle) may hinder
some of the applications, particularly impact mapping and
damage assessment due to floods. Some countries, such as
China and India, have their own airborne synthetic aperture
radar to fill the gaps. However, it is important to recognize
that Earth observation potentially drives hazard zonation
and risk assessment, whereas improvements in early warning
and satcom address the critical gaps related to connectivity
and information dissemination.
58. It is therefore necessary that Earth observation and
satcom become integrated (a) in governmental policies, (b)
in the related efforts of international organizations, including
the United Nations and regional agencies, (c) in building
international/regional/subregional cooperative frameworks
and (d) in capacity-building mechanisms (figure V). Basically,
the efforts should aim at using space applications while
addressing the information needs of stakeholders, as well
as strengthening the institutional infrastructure.
Figure V. Enabling mechanisms for
harmonizing information needs of stakeholders with national
systems and space applications
59. Disaster management has attracted considerable international
focus. United Nations agencies, international funding agencies,
donors and bilateral/multilateral cooperative mechanisms
– all have attached due importance to disaster management.
Reducing vulnerability to and risk from natural or human-induced
hazards is addressed by many entities of the United Nations
system within the framework of their respective field of
activities. The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
(ISDR) has been established as the successor arrangement
to the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
(1990-1999), for a consolidated and coordinated approach
to disaster and risk reduction by concerned entities within
and outside the United Nations system <www.unisdr.org>.
ISDR, placed under the direct authority of the Under-Secretary-General
for Humanitarian Affairs, is dedicated entirely to disaster
reduction.
60. All the regional commissions of the United Nations,
including ESCAP, and specialized bodies such as UNDP, FAO,
UNICEF, UNEP, WFP, UN-HABITAT, UNESCO, WMO and WHO have
been making contributions in the areas of disaster management
within the framework of their mandated activities. ESCAP,
for example, in cooperation with WMO, conducted a regional
survey, which has contributed to the strengthening of regional
cooperation in flood forecasting and disaster reduction.
Similarly, ESCAP provided advisory services to the secretariat
of the Mekong River Commission on the formulation of the
regional strategy for flood management and mitigation. The
Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre (ADPC) <www.adpc.net>
and Asian Disaster Reduction Centre (ADRC) <www.adrc.or.jp>
are regional agencies working in areas related to disaster
management.
61. In respect of space applications, the United Nations
Office for Outer Space Affairs (OOSA), based in Vienna and
linked to the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses
of Outer Space, is implementing a programme for an Integrated
Space Application System for Disaster Management, in cooperation
with a number of United Nations agencies and programmes,
as well as other entities such as the Committee on Earth
Observation Satellites. This activity is carried out in
response to the call for implementing an integrated global
system capable of using space applications and space-based
services for disaster mitigation, relief and prevention
(UNISPACE III Conference) <www.oosa.unvienna.org>.
One of the remarkable achievements, as part of the UNISPACE
III recommendations, has been the emergence of the International
Charter “Space and Major Disasters”. Recognizing
the fact that no single operator or satellite can match
the challenges of natural disaster management, and that
a long-term working partnership between the civil protection
community and space agencies holds the key for efficient
use of space technology in disaster management, the International
Charter is, in a sense, an important milestone towards bringing
the major space agencies together in the framework of cooperation
< www.disasterscharter.org
>.
62. FAO, through its World Agricultural Information Centre
(WAICENT), develops and maintains a web site on disaster-related
activities to provide access to disaster reduction information,
and has mobilized international support through its Global
Information and Early Warning System (GIEWS). FAO has further
enhanced its ability to provide an operational service on
environmental information, through the Advanced Real-Time
Environmental Monitoring Information System (ARTEMIS), which
uses satellite remote sensing data. Moreover, the FAO Environment
and Natural Resources Service, of the Sustainable Development
Department, develops various spatial information infrastructure
and databases and uses remote sensing and GIS for sustainable
development planning, including disaster impact assessments
and mapping of risk from and vulnerability to natural hazards
<www.fao.org>.
63. There may be certain overlaps among the various international
efforts, but there is a thin demarcation in terms of their
respective mandates, which drive the various activities.
For example, in the case of ESCAP, addressing floods and
drought falls under the broad umbrella of poverty alleviation
and managing the negative impacts of globalization in the
region. A brief analysis on the related activities is in
annex V, which highlights very clearly the role of international
organizations in disaster reduction, as well as their efforts
in harmonizing the information needs of stakeholders with
institutional capabilities and space systems (United Nations,
2002).
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