MANAGEMENT OF SELF-HELP ORGANIZATIONS OF PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES List of Abbreviations ABU Asian Blind Union ADD Action on Disability and Development APD Association of People with Disability (Bangalore, India) APHT Association of the Physically Handicapped of Thailand. CEO chief executive officer ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific FDPA Fiji Disabled Peoples Association FESPIC Far East and South Pacific Sports Games for the Disabled IL Independent living JIL Japan Council for Independent Living Centres KAMPI Katipunan ng Maykapansanan sa Philipinas, Inc (Federation of Persons with Disabilities in the Philippines, Inc.) NAB National Association for the Blind (India) NADT National Association of the Deaf in Thailand NGO Non-governmental organization ODA Overseas Development Administration (United Kingdom) STAC Stimulation and Therapeutic Activity Centre VSO Voluntary Service Overseas (United Kingdom) WBU World Blind Union WDL World Deaf Leadership WTCT Wheelchair Tennis Club of Thailand CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION II DEFINITION A. Self-help and self-help organizations B. Leadership C. Management D. Democratic decision-making II OVERVIEW OF SELF-HELP ORGANIZATIONS IN THE REGION A. Cross-disability organizations B. Single-disability organizations C. Issues faced by self-help organizations in the region IV MANAGEMENT ISSUES A. Concentration of power B. Staff C. Accountability Case study 1: Preventing abuses of funds within a self-help organization D. Fundraising Case study 2: Fundraising in the Fiji Disabled Peoples Association(FDPA) E. Gender sensitivity Case study 3: The Women's Committee in the Asian Blind Union F. Organizational continuity: Development of new leaders Case study 4: Training new leaders at KAMPI, Philippines III. APPROACHES AND ACTIVITIES A. Approaches to rural people with disabilities Case study 5: Sanghams of village people with disabilities B. Independent-living programmes for people with extensive disabilities Case study 6: Independent-living centres in Japan C. Cooperation between self-help organizations in developed and developing countries Case study 7: The Campaign to Send Wheelchairs to Asian Disabled Persons Case study 8: A university-level Thai Sign Language certificate programme D. New types of training and job placement Case study 9: The Redemptorist Vocational Training School, Pattaya, Thailand Case study 10: Horticulture as an employment opportunity for people with disabilities E. Development of sports and recreational activities Case Study 11: Development of Thai disabled athletes through their own initiatives F. Developing a network of self-help organizations through the Internet G. Training in self-advocacy and empowerment II CONCLUSION II ANNEXES ANNEX I. Guidelines for all FDPA personnel and volunteers who attend workshops sponsored by FDPA or outside donors ANNEX II. A simplified bookkeeping system used by the FDPA for its newly formed rural branch offices ANNEX III. Curriculum for training of NGO workers ANNEX IV. Courses for the NADT Thai sign language programme ANNEX V. Additional information sources A. Useful publications and documents B. Head offices and regional offices of international self-help organizations and other related organizations C. Asian and Pacific regional offices of United Nations bodies and specialized agencies I. INTRODUCTION This is the latest in a series of publications from the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) concerning self-help rganizations of people with disabilities. Previous publications in the series include Self-Help Organizations of Disabled Persons: Reports of Three Pilot National Workshops (United Nations publication ST/ESCAP/1159), Self-Help Organizations of Disabled Persons (ST/ESCAP/1087) and Directory on Self-Help Organizations of People with Disabilities (ST/ESCAP/1330). The series is intended to generate discussion and action supportive of the efforts of people with disabilities to have more effective self-help organizations. This kind of non-government organization (NGO) can enhance full participation and equality in mainstream society, which is the goal of the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons, 1993-2002. The capacity of people with disabilities to undertake self-advocacy, particularly through representative organizations, is central to the fulfilment of the Decade's goal. ESCAP organized a series of subregional workshops on the management of self-help organizations of people with disabilities: a South Asia workshop in Dhaka, December 1993; an East and Southeast Asia workshop in Bacolod City, Philippines, January 1994; and a Pacific workshop in Suva, February 1996. The workshops addressed the training needs of executives and senior administrators of self-help organizations of people with disabilities from those subregions. They were directed at enhancing participants' management skills and ability to play a more effective, cooperative role in developing national policies and programmes on people with disabilities. Much of this publication deals with discussions, information and experiences shared by the workshop participants. Broadly, there are two types of disability organization: service-delivery organizations, which increasingly support advocacy on behalf of people with disabilities, but are often not run by them; and self-help organizations, whose decision-making power lies with a board composed of people with disabilities, and which seek to achieve the self-representation and self-advocacy of people with disabilities in national and sub-national decision-making processes. These self-help organizations are membership organizations and mostly run on a voluntary bases. Self-help organizations of people with disabilities are weak compared with other NGOs that have emerged during the same period, particularly those dealing with the environment or with women's and children's rights. Key reasons for this relative weakness include the marginalization of people with disabilities from mainstream development programmes, which has given them a low level of skills and poor self-esteem. In addition, as a social group, people with disabilities face limited contact and communication. This is caused not only by their poor access to transport and communication infrastructure, but also by divisions among people with different types of disabilities, and any other divisions (such as gender, caste or ethnic group) that affect the cohesiveness of society and social groups. Among self-help organizations of people with disabilities, there is a common pattern of weaknesses in management. Remedying this pattern of weaknesses is the concern of the present publication. It has two goals: first, to outline common management issues affecting self-help organizations in Asia and the Pacific; and second, to present a range of approaches that can serve as a useful reference for strengthening self-help organizations. This publication also contains the following, inter alia: (a) useful documents and publications; (b) contact details for international self-help organizations and their regional offices, and regional offices of United Nations bodies and agencies. The publication is aimed at the following groups of people: (a) Management personnel, board of directors and members of organizations of people with disabilities; (b) Organizations, including government organizations and NGOs, that are in a position to support the strengthening of self-help organizations; (c) People with disabilities who are not yet members of an organization of people with disabilities, but could join one; (d) Community members in youth groups, women's organizations and civic societies. II. DEFINITIONS A. Self-help and self-help organizations These definitions are derived from the ESCAP publication Self-Help Organizations of Disabled Persons. "Self-help" means mutual support and empathetic human relationships. It is group solidarity which enables disabled people who are experiencing similar hardship to support each other and to overcome common difficulties through the exchange of practical information, insight and knowledge gained through personal experience. That solidarity and mutual support serves as a basis for collective action to improve the existing situation of people with disabilities in society. A "self-help organization of people with disabilities" is an organization run by self-motivated disabled people to enable disabled peers in their community to become similarly self-motivated, and self-reliant. The organization may engage in efforts to provide community-based support services through mutual support mechanisms and advocacy for disabled persons to achieve their maximum potential, and assume responsibility for their own lives. Thus, a self-help organization of people with disabilities may be characterized by self-determination and control by disabled people, self-advocacy and mutual support mechanisms, aimed at strengthening the participation of people with disabilities in community life. Unless otherwise noted, the term "self-help organization", when used alone in this publication, refers to a self-help organization of people with disabilities. B. Leadership "A leader...is someone who is able to develop and communicate a vision which gives meaning to the work of others. It is a task too important to be left only to those at the top of organizations. Leaders are needed at all levels and in all situations... In fact, anyone who wants to get something done with or through other people can and should learn the lessons of leadership. We are all leaders at one time or another."1 Leaders require vision, communication, trust and self-knowledge. Leaders should develop a vision which guides their organization and makes its members or staff more confident. Leaders need good communication skills to share the vision with members. Everyone can take part in shaping the vision. Leaders can articulate it and capture it with words, visuals or other expressions, so that it enters people's imaginations. In a self-help organization of people with disabilities, leadership does not belong to a few individuals; rather, each empowered member shares leadership. Leaders need to establish trust through consistency and integrity. They also need self-knowledge, the knowledge of their own strengths and weaknesses. Leaders "build on their strengths and compensate for their weaknesses and they consciously look for the fit between who they are and what the organization needs."2 In a self-help organization, leaders should learn values that the organization espouses; develop organizational development skills to maintain a democratic and effective organization; develop gender sensitivity to avoid gender stereotypes; raise critical consciousness about socio-political and economic issues in the community and analyze its situation; learn advocacy skills; and enhance communication skills.3 C. Management Managers of self-help organizations may be called executive secretary, director or some other title. Their duty is to execute decisions made by the organization's board of directors. Managers have many different roles, which can be divided into three basic sets: interpersonal roles (figurehead, leader and liaison), informational roles (monitor, disseminator, spokesperson) and decisional roles (entrepreneur, disturbance handler and negotiator).Those three roles may be described as leading, administrating and fixing roles, respectively.4 Managers of self-help organizations need skills and knowledge to help empower organization members and influence national policies and programmes that directly or indirectly affect members' lives. These skills include not only leadership qualities, but also the specific skills required to run a non-profit organization with volunteer members and some paid staff. These include skills in raising funds and other resources, ensuring good public and community relations, advocacy, supervising personnel, training staff, budgeting, accounting, and planning, monitoring and evaluating programmes. Running an organization is demanding, and the actions taken are not always appreciated. Managers may have to be at the front line of troubleshooting, but may not get the recognition for a job well done. Many self-help organizations lack skillful managers. D. Democratic decision-making Democratic decision-making means that every member of an organization is guaranteed equal participation in its decision-making processes, whether this participation is direct (voting on decisions) or indirect (electing representatives to make decisions). Democratic decision-making shares responsibilities among the entire group. The participation of members in decision-making and the resulting responsibility will likely satisfy members' needs for self-actualization and self-esteem, releasing greater effort on their part.5 The opposite of democratic decision-making is authoritarian decision-making, in which power resides with the leader or a small group of individuals. Self-help organizations, which take enhancing the self-actualization and participation of people with disabilities as a central goal, should always use democratic decision-making. III. OVERVIEW OF SELF-HELP ORGANIZATIONS IN THE REGION It is not an easy task to identify and characterize self-help organizations of people with disabilities. There is a wide range of such organizations, from small village groups to nation-wide or international-level organizations. Some are large with ample resources; some are weak in terms of financial resource but successful in empowering their members. Some vocal, visible people with disabilities may claim to represent a certain group of disabled people, but it is often difficult to determine the true constituency of the group. To find out the profiles of self-help organizations in the region, ESCAP conducted a survey of such organizations between 1991 and 1992. Seventy organizations responded to the survey. Of these, 29 (or 41 per cent) were cross-disability organizations, which represent people with two or more types of disability. The remainder were single-disability organizations, including: 16 organizations of people with visual impairments (23 per cent); 13 organizations of people with orthopaedic or locomotor disabilities (19 per cent); 5 organizations of people with hearing impairments (7 per cent); and 7 organizations of people with other types of disabilities, such as psychiatric disorders, intellectual disabilities, speech impairments and lung disease (10 per cent). These numbers are not necessarily representative of self-help organizations of people with disabilities in Asia and the Pacific, as organizations from only 19 countries and territories responded to the survey questionnaire, and 32 of the organizations (47 per cent of the total) were located in South Asia. Close analysis of the results, however, reveals some trends among self-help organizations. A. Cross-disability organizations Many cross-disability organizations had a large membership, were nationally operated, and were better staffed than most single-disability organizations, excluding organizations of blind people and institution-based organizations. The average number of full-time and part-time paid staff for a cross-disability organization was 5.5 people, compared to 3 people for single-disability organizations. Nine cross-disability organizations were "umbrella" organizations, which attempted to represent all the people with disabilities in their respective countries. Their functions focused on advocacy, information dissemination and national coordination of their member organizations, many of which were focused on single disabilities. Their goals and objectives made their functions explicit: "To establish the rights of people with disabilities in society, and convince the government to protect their legal rights." (Bangladesh Welfare Organization of Disabled Persons) "To work together with the government and other relevant authorities to establish legislation and policies to protect the rights of people with disabilities in Fiji." (Fiji Disabled People's Association ). "To unite people with disabilities within the State in one constituent organization which shall act as a focus to represent them" (South Australian Branch of Disabled Peoples' International Inc.) The Council of Disabled People of Thailand had the most explicit goals: (a) Seek and propose legislation and regulations that will benefit all disabled people in Thailand; (b) Amend all legislation and regulations which discriminate against disabled people. The Council was successful in influencing the Thai Government to enact the Rehabilitation Act of People with Disabilities in 1991 and subsequent Ministerial regulations to enforce the Act in 1994. Many of the cross-disability organizations undertook community awareness activities, including seminars and workshops on disability and public-education campaigns, and provided training workshops for their members concerning their rights and advocacy skills. As most cross-disability organizations were federations of organizations, their major focus was on advocacy and awareness promotion activities. Some organizations offered direct services, including vocational training, job placement service and a medical supply programme, but they rarely considered this to be their primary function. Fiji Disabled People's Association stated in its mission statement: "FDPA will provide urgent, direct services on a short term basis until these services can be assumed by an appropriate public or private agency." Cross-disability organizations also existed at the small-scale, local level. It is usually not feasible to establish organizations of persons with a single disability in a village or small town, simply because there are not enough persons with one disability. Therefore, it may be more feasible to form cross-disability groups that can serve people with all types of disability in a village. Sanghams of village disabled persons in South India (see Case-study 5) and independent living centers in Japan (see Case-study 6) are examples of such local cross-disability organizations. B. Single-disability organizations The single-disability organizations, which formed the majority of the organizations surveyed, said they operated at the national and provincial levels, rarely at the village level. They were formed to meet specific needs among a certain disability group, and so tended to provide more direct services to their members than cross-disability organizations did. For example, organizations of blind people usually provided through Braille libraries loan services of Braille books and tapes for their members; provided assistive devices such as white canes and braille slates; and organized Braille training and vocational training, as well as job placement services. One organization undertook community-based rehabilitation programmes for blind people in rural areas, operated day-care centres for older blind people, operated Braille equipment banks, and published Braille journals. Another organization operated a home for blind women, an eye hospital with 20 beds and a talking book library with 96 full-time and 6 part-time paid staff. Many single-disability groups conducted advocacy work, although they focused on issues specifically related to the disabilities that concerned them. The most critical issue for blind people's organizations was the expansion of employment opportunities for their members. Organizations of deaf people had more diverse functions. Their central focus was on the development of sign languages and on establishing sign-language interpretation services. They also conducted skill training courses and assisted their members in obtaining employment. They commonly provided peer counseling and peer support for their members and sign-language classes for the general public; often, they organized sports and recreational events for members. One such organization, Kathmandu Association of the Deaf, cited its goal as improving the conditions of deaf people through the development of sign language, provision of counselling services and employment support. People with orthopaedic disabilities tended to come together as an informal social group, eventually forming a self-help organization. Over half of these organizations had no paid staff, managing the operation entirely with volunteers. Their major concerns were mobility and access to physical environments, so they focused their efforts on providing mobility aids (such as wheelchairs and tricycles), as well as on promoting accessible physical environments, especially public transportation services. Some organizations produced and disseminated assistive devices such as prostheses and orthoses as well as mobility aids. Some self-help organizations were for people with other specific disabilities, including laryngectomy (which results in loss of the vocal cords), psychiatric conditions and mood-swing disorders. The support of professional personnel usually encouraged these organizations to form. Their objective was to provide support to people with these disability and their families through information exchange, counselling and other services to foster mutual support among disabled people and their families. In some instances, their membership was limited to those who had received services from one hospital or an institution; others had statewide membership. C. Issues faced by self-help organizations in the region 1. Long-term financial support The majority of the organizations indicated a need for long-term financial support to cover operational costs, including office rent, equipment and staff salaries. Organizations also said they required assistance in fund-raising skills such as project-proposal writing. They generally indicated that Governments provided limited financial and technical support to self-help organizations, and that local and international funding organizations allocated them little funds. This clearly demonstrates that a low priority has been given to developing self-help organizations in the region. To raise their profile in government funding priorities and among funding organizations would require vigorous public campaign efforts by concerned United Nations agencies, as well as by NGOs that support the self-representation of people with disabilities and by the self-help organizations themselves. 2. Communication and collaboration among single-disability organizations Single-disability organizations in the region often face the problem of a lack of communication and collaboration. In many countries, for example, organizations of deaf people would not communicate and associate with organizations of blind people or people with locomotor disabilities. Often, the organizations compete with each other to receive funds from a Government or funding organizations. A cross-disability organization, however, can provide a national forum for various types of single-disability organizations. When this has occurred, as in Thailand and the Philippines, self-help organizations have participated effectively in formulating and implementing national policies and programmes for people with disabilities. 3. Gender representation Both the organizations which responded to the ESCAP survey and those that participated in the ESCAP subregional workshops indicated that women were a minority in their memberships. One organization said that only about 20 per cent of its members were women, and that 90 per cent of those women were illiterate and could not pursue activities in the organization. To improve this situation among their members, some organizations have initiated discussion groups of women and organized leadership training seminars. However, self-help organizations need to take more innovative steps that will enable more women and girls with disabilities to participate in their overall activities and include more women in leadership positions. 4. Rural representation The majority of people with disabilities in the region live in the rural areas of developing countries. However, national self-help organizations have failed to mobilize rural people with disabilities, as most of their leadership consists of urban elite people with disabilities who are often unaware of rural conditions. Challenging the urban elite's leadership monopoly will help increase the participation of rural people with disabilities in the mainstream self-help movement. This could be achieved by encouraging rural people with disabilities to form their own village-based self-help groups, and then urging government agencies and NGOs in rural development to support those groups. The rural groups should be represented on an equal-partner basis in national-level self-help organizations. 5. Disability as a development issue Self-help organizations need to pay attention to more wider issues of poverty and development. They should carefully examine the relationship between poverty and disability to understand the underlying causes of disability. Malnutrition, low hygienic conditions and diseases are major causes of disabilities in the Asian and Pacific developing countries. Unless those factors have been dealt with, the number of people with disabilities will increase and their quality of life will not improve. 6. Challenges ahead Upcoming challenges for self-help organizations include the following: (a) strengthening the democratic decision-making process; (b) meeting the needs of people with disabilities who are currently under-represented in the organizations, especially those in the rural areas, women and girls with disabilities, and those with speech and communication disabilities; (c) upgrading organization management, especially financial and fund-raising skills, to professional standards. IV. MANAGEMENT ISSUES Self-help organizations of people with disabilities face most of the management problems common among NGOs, such as lack of funds and shortage of office staff. However, some management issues are more prominent than others, because of the situations that people with disabilities face. This section will discuss common management issues experienced and some approaches employed by self-help organizations to resolve those issues. A. Concentration of power 1. Confusion of the roles of president and executive A NGO's president or chairperson should be a volunteer. The president's role is to represent an organization and to chair the board of directors. The board, with the approval of the general assembly, will set the organization's policies and plans. The role of an executive secretary, director, or manager, by contrast, is to implement those policies and plans. (This may be a paid position.) In some self-help organizations, however, one person fills the roles of both positions. This may lead to the concentration of power in that individual because of the absence of a check-and-balance mechanism. To avoid this problem, when an organization grows, it should make sure to create an executive position, directly accountable to the board of directors and not in charge of it. 2. One-person organizations One person may dominate even a seemingly democratic decision-making process, usually as a result of a high level of education, social status or ability to articulate opinions. This may result in one-person control of the organization. 3. Imbalance of skills and experiences among members People who have acquired disabilities late in life often dominate the leadership positions of self-help organizations, especially organizations of people with locomotor disabilities. This is because they usually have a higher level of education, and more work and social experience, from the period before they acquired their disabilities. People who were born with disabilities or acquired them in early childhood, by contrast, may lack education and experiences in socialization and work. These conditions may make it difficult for them to take leadership roles in self-help organizations. 4. Unmet need for training Concentration of power in an organization may occur because many people with disabilities are not familiar with organization decision-making processes. They may not have been given any opportunity to make decisions in their own lives, let alone in their organizations. In such cases, members (especially board members) should receive opportunities to be trained in making appropriate decisions. The executive director or executive staff are responsible for arranging such training. B. Staff Many self-help organizations depend on the goodwill of committed members who can volunteer time and energy to helping the day-to-day operation of the organization. That operation (e.g., initiating and responding to correspondence) is difficult for self-help organizations, because of both language problems and a lack of personnel resources. When these difficulties lead to poor operation, it contributes to a perception of organizations of people with disabilities as being uncooperative and ineffective. Self-help organizations in such a situation need to improve their operation by recruiting volunteers or by raising funds to hire regular staff. When a self-help organization grows, there is a need to develop paid positions within it. Paid staff should receive adequate salaries and other benefits on par with the staff of other NGOs working in the same community. However, members should take caution. Over-dependence on professional staff may weaken the participation of elected board members in the organization's management and decision-making processes. Elected members of self-help organizations need to remember that they are not employing full-time personnel to abrogate their own responsibilities and leadership. C. Accountability There are many levels of accountability in self-help organizations. All members should commit themselves to promoting their full participation and equality in society. At the next level, leaders of a self-help organization should see themselves as facilitators who are accountable to all members, including those from urban slums and rural areas. 1. Accountability for rural members Members in rural areas have particular difficulty participating in activities and receiving information on activities of a large self-help organization. Often, the organization head office is located in the national or provincial capital or a large city, with the majority of board members belonging to an urban elite class. For their convenience, meetings tend to be organized in the city bases. This situation gives urban members little exposure to problems faced by people with disabilities in rural areas. To improve the situation for rural members of self-help organizations, board members should do the following: (a) Spend some time listening to and consulting with rural people with disabilities; (b) Guarantee fair representation of rural disabled members (with adequate training in making decisions) on the decision-making body, taking care to avoid tokenism; (c) Rotate meeting sites between urban and rural areas. 2. Accountability of those who have received privileges on behalf of the organization Only a few organization members can make overseas trips for training, seminars or meetings. Often, these are top leaders who do not share information and knowledge gained abroad with the rest of the membership. Organizations need a fair selection process for sending members abroad and a mechanism by which information and knowledge thus gained can be shared with all members. FDPA has developed guidelines for such mechanism. For more details, see Annex I: Guidelines for all FDPA personnel and volunteers who attend workshops sponsored by FDPA or outside donors. 3. Financial abuse Self-help organizations often have poor financial management. Many self-help organizations do not keep up with the standards that donors require. As a consequence, they lose the trust of donors, and lose funding as a result. At worst, they may face outright financial abuse. Case study 1: Preventing abuses of funds within a self-help organization6 Introduction Almost every organization, even a charitable organization, will eventually be troubled by the abuse of its resources, especially financial resources. In some cases this abuse may be minor; in other cases, it can be devastating and even fatal to an organisation. The abuse may be obvious, or it may be hidden or justified through the use of such terms as "spoiled goods", "natural wastage", "commission", "staff perks", "petty cash", "miscellaneous expenses", or even "accepted practice". Lost resources are not the only problem resulting from financial abuse. A common reaction to the discovery of financial abuse is a lack of trust from those dealing with the organization, which may include the general public. This can result in suspicion, recrimination and counter-recrimination between elected officers, staff, members and donors. This may even intrude into the personal lives of those concerned with the organization, whether connected with the abuse or not. Furthermore, volunteers and donors may become unwilling to offer further assistance and funding and membership may decline. Clearly, then, financial abuse can be a severe problem, and organizations must make every efforts to prevent, eradicate or reduce it. Types of financial abuse There are three main types of financial abuse. Each of these may involve cash, cheques, stamps, equipment, services or any other resources (including facilities and assets) of an organization. The most obvious type of financial abuse is deliberate and intentional abuse, where a person or persons, inside or outside the organization, set out to convert, embezzle or otherwise transfer resources from the organization to their own personal use. This is simple theft; once detected, it is relatively easy to deal with. The second category of abuse is management abuse, where management uses, or allows the use of, resources for purposes other than their original intention. For example, people in the organization may use funds which have been reserved for a specific project to pay for general administrative costs, or use official telephones for private calls. The third category of financial abuse is inefficiency, where funds or resources are not used to their best advantage. For example, the organization may not consider competitive quotations for the purchase of capital equipment; it may be over-staffed; it may use premium quality paper for drafting when scrap paper is entirely suitable. What the three categories of abuse have in common is opportunity. Deliberate abuse can only happen when its perpetrators are given the opportunity to steal. Management abuse and inefficiencies can only happen when their perpetrators are given the opportunity to spend without control, or to continue inefficiency because of a lack of control, accountability or information. The application of standard rules of conduct or procedures and systems can reduce these opportunities and thus prevent, or at least detect, financial abuse at an early date. The organization can then take appropriate action. Three examples, taken from the same national organization, illustrate how abuses can occur. Example 1 A national organization of people with disabilities wanted to purchase its own headquarters office. Approximately US$ 125,000 was required for the full purchase price; the organization had only US$ 16,000 in the bank, in a long-term investment account. The organization identified suitable premises, but the deposit for the building was more than the value of the organization's long-term investment. Consequently, the Executive Committee (ExCo) of the organization instructed the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) to borrow money from the organization's bankers against the long-term investment, and use the borrowed money to find a suitable short-term investment that would boost the amount available for deposit. The CEO quickly came up with a business that was looking for investors, and which promised to repay a 30 day investment with the unlikely sum of 25 per cent interest. The organization rushed into the investment û and lost its entire savings. Confidence in the organization's management by the membership, the Government, the national disability co-ordinating agency, donors and bankers hit an all-time low. The national organization, which had previously been doing well, came to within a few dollars of bankruptcy and enforced closure. This serious problem was caused by the following abuses: (a) The ExCo's initial decision to instruct the CEO to seek an investment had not been ratified by the organization's full Board of elected officers. This was contrary to the organization's constitutional regulations. In addition, the decision to invest in the business was not approved by all the ExCo members, and neither was it ratified by the full Board. Once again, this was contrary to constitutional regulations. (Management abuse.) (b) In order to make the investment, the organization obtained the short-term bank loan by telling the bank that the money would be used for the building deposit. No mention was made of the 30 day business investment. To obtain the short-term loan, the organization presented the bank with the minutes of a fictitious board meeting. Those who had signed the letter to the bank (the organization's President, Treasurer and CEO) could have faced criminal charges, but the bank was happy to recover its funds from the long-term deposit which secured the short-term loan. (Deliberate and management abuse, amounting to fraud.) (c) Those who made the decision to invest did not consult professional financial advisers. The organization's bankers could have provided advice free of charge and conducted a credit rating on the business. (Inefficiency abuse.) (d) Those who made the decision to invest failed to consult professional lawyers to secure their investment. (Inefficiency abuse.) (e) The CEO, who had been appointed as a partner in the business on the instruction of the President, was instructed to keep close watch on how the invested sum was used, and to regularly report to the Board û but did not do so. (Deliberate, management and inefficiency abuse.) (f) The ExCo failed to monitor the investment, even when the invested sum was not returned within 30 days. It also did not inform the full Board until ten months later, only days before the Members' Annual General Meeting. (Deliberate and management abuse.) (g) Those members of the full Board and ExCo who were not a party to the investment decisions failed to detect that a substantial part of the organization's assets had been compromised, until the independent audit report 10 months after the event. (Management and inefficiency abuse.) (h) Middle management staff who knew of the problem failed to report it to the uninformed Board members and the general membership. (Management and inefficiency abuse). (i) After the full Board became aware of the situation, it initially appeared to attempt to hide the situation from the membership at the Annual General Meeting by allowing the CEO to produce no draft audit accounts. Members at the Meeting forced the issue and finally received copies of the draft audit account. (Deliberate and management abuse). Example 2 Certain Board members of the national organization wished to borrow money from it. In order to legitimize this action, they consulted the organization's constitution and used a paragraph out of context. The borrowing went undetected during the initial year. Nobody present at the Annual General Meeting questioned this item in the annual audited accounts until the second year. Although the majority of funds were eventually repaid, this action amounted to management abuse, and caused membership to lose trust in the Board. The organization also approved a $3,000 loan to its CEO, contrary to its own constitution and employment policy. The loan went unpaid even though the CEO (who was responsible for the preparation of salary payments) was supposed to make monthly deductions from his salary and repay the loan within six months. This was management and inefficiency abuse on the part of the Board and deliberate abuse on behalf of the CEO. Example 3 On appointment, the CEO was advised he would be responsible for his own transport to and from home to the place of work (a journey of about 30 km each way), and that the organization's sole vehicle could only be used on rare occasions when working exceptional, unsociable hours. Yet, soon after his appointment, the CEO began to take the vehicle home on a daily basis. Nobody took corrective action, and the CEO took more and more liberties as time went by. Often, the CEO would not arrive at work until after normal working hours, thus depriving the organization of the legitimate use of the vehicle. The CEO claimed to be taking the vehicle home each night to ensure its safety, but there was no real reason why the vehicle should not have been parked overnight at the organization's premises. The CEO used the vehicle to transport his children to school and produce from his smallholding to town. This abuse lasted for two years until the CEO's suspension (as a result of the actions described in example 1). It is conservatively estimated that this problem consumed a distance of some 32,000 km and US$ 8,000 of the organization's funds. Discussion As a result of the problems described in each of these three examples, this organization lost some US$ 27,000 within the space of two years û 20 per cent of the organization's expenditure over that period. The obvious common factor in all the problems is the action of the CEO. However, in each case the organization also demonstrated a lack of certain helpful characteristics that could have prevented the problem. They are listed here: (a) supervision and management of the organization by the elected Executive and Board; (b) attention to the job descriptions of elected executives; (c) questioning of how resources were being used by staff and the general membership; (d) regard for procedures and systems; (e) monitoring of decisions and instructions by the Board. In addition, during the time of these abuses, the organization (under the direction of the CEO) did not keep its bookkeeping up to date. Furthermore, apart from the independent annual audit inspection, nobody attempted to produce meaningful management information from the books of account. Neither did the Board attempt to translate the information in the annual audited accounts into a format which could be understood by the vast majority of members of the organization, who were not financially literate. The case study demonstrates the dangers faced by placing too much trust and control in one person (the CEO), and the importance of the role of elected executives as custodians of an organization. It also highlights the need for ordinary members of an organization to help ensure that their organization is being run correctly. Preventing financial abuse: tips for ordinary members Ordinary members of an organization are often in the best position to speak out and prevent the kind of abuse described here. The following methods of detecting, preventing and dealing with financial abuse are aimed at those ordinary members. An organization's members have the right to know what is going on in it. They can and should attend general members' meetings, listen to and read reports which are presented û and speak out if they don't understand these. They can ask the Board to explain more clearly what has been, or is being, done. If members are still not satisfied with the way the organization is being run, they can take the following actions: (a) Read the organization's constitution. The constitution is there to protect members' rights, and they may find that they have the right to convene a special general members' meeting to discuss their concerns. (b) Speak to other members of the organization and find out if they share the concerns. (c) Write formally to the President, informing him or her of their concerns. (d) Contact the government Registrar of NGOs or Commissioner for Charities and ask them to make enquiries. As a last resort, if they have strong suspicions that money is being abused, they may contact the police or ask one of the organization's major donors to conduct an investigation. Basic actions Financial abuse can be likened to illnesses: some are unpleasant but minor; others start as minor but become critical if not treated; still others can be immediately and obviously disabling or fatal. The three basic actions to prevent the problems caused by abuse are also similar to ways of dealing with disease. In order of priority, they are: prevention; early detection; and management (or treatment). Prevention is better than cure. It is essential that organizations take measures to prevent financial abuse. Such measures include the following: (a) Open, clear and transparent accountability by elected officers and staff. This means clearly defined roles for elected officers and clearly defined job descriptions for staff; levels of responsibility and accountability should be clearly defined along with these. (b) Wise and efficient use of assets and resources. This includes effective, regular control, monitoring and supervision of assets and resources. (c) Open, clear accounting and bookkeeping practices where the books of account are kept up to date. (d) Preparation, monitoring and control of budgets. (e) Regular banking and primary support documentation for income and expenditures. (f) Multiple signatures for cheques, financial withdrawals and transactions. (g) Regular internal auditing by the treasurer, secretary, president or an independent auditor. (h) Regular periodic (usually annual) auditing by an independent person, preferably an auditor or chartered accountant. (i) Elimination or reduction of opportunity and temptation for abuse. (j) Training of the Board and staff in matters such as duties and responsibilities, procedures, systems and handling of cash. (k) Presence of at least two people whenever cash is handled, as much as possible. (l) Public announcements that abuses will not be tolerated and that anyone caught abusing the organization's resources will be dealt with severely and publicly. Early detection. Detection of abuse relies not only on the elected executive, board members and staff, but on all who have business with an organization, including the ordinary membership and donors. In addition to the measures suggested under prevention (above), concerned parties can do the following: (a) Monitor resources and assets. This will include: (i) physically checking items against an asset register; (ii) inspecting vehicle log books; (iii) examining postage-stamp registers; (iv) examining petty-cash books and receipts, and reconciling cash on hand; (v) carrying out bank reconciliations to ensure that the bank account balances; (vi) checking time sheets; (vii) examining random bills and expenses. (b) Monitor expenditure and income against the prepared budget. (c) Update the books of account. (d) Carry out spot checks. (e) Ensure that procedures and systems are in place and are being observed. (f) Regularly share information between staff, board members and the organization's membership. (g) Ensure direct, confidential communication opportunities between staff and Board members. Swift and immediate management of abuse is required as soon as abuse is detected. Those concerned must immediately stop the opportunity for it to continue. Second, they must investigate the abuse, find out who the perpetrators were, how the abuse operated and estimate or quantify the extent of the abuse. Third, they should introduce systems to prevent the abuse recurring. Fourth, they should deal with the perpetrators and try to recover the lost funds/resources. Finally, they need to decide how to inform the organization's members and, if necessary, the public or donors (possibly including the Government). Considerations The following matters should be considered in dealing with financial abuse. Insurance: Concerned parties should find out how much it will cost to insure assets against theft or loss, as insurance may be one way of limiting the financial damage to the organization. Legal action: If a particular abuse amounts to a crime, such as theft, fraud or embezzlement, then the matter should be reported to the police. In some countries, reporting a crime is mandatory. Under most legal systems, if criminal proceedings are undertaken, it prevents any civil action for the recovery of funds until after the criminal case has been heard. But in many cases of small abuse, or cases where the perpetrator(s) have no assets, civil action may not be a cost-effective method of dealing with the offence. Going public: When abuse is detected, openness is generally the best policy, but that does not mean that telling the public immediately is the best choice. The organization should, first of all, keep its members up to date on the situation. If a specific donor's money or assets have been abused, the organization should inform that donor about both the loss and the actions it is taking. Rumour can be more destructive than the truth, so the organization should prepare a press release and send this to various news agencies before any rumours can start, if there is a good chance of the abuse becoming public. A lawyer or legal adviser should check any press release before it is circulated, to ensure that the organization does not fall foul of any libel infringements or jeopardize future court action. The organization should appoint an official spokesperson to deal with enquiries and refer all enquiries to that person, rather than allowing others to communicate directly with the press. Reports: Those writing reports concerning abuse should refer only to known, provable facts. They should not speculate, assume, presume or use emotive words. Further training: After taking the immediately necessary actions, the organization may wish to consider providing further training or refresher training for its staff, volunteers or board, in order to prevent or reduce the opportunity for a repetition of the abuse. Systems and procedures The most important and effective weapons against abuse are the systems and procedures designed to protect the efficiency and security of an organization and its assets. It is not enough for the systems to be designed and in place; those using the systems must understand them. This may involve training or the production of procedural manuals. Most importantly, staff, volunteers and board must adhered to the systems and put them into practice. This involves management, supervision and discipline. All organizations are different, but in addition to the guidelines already provided in this article, the following general guidelines may be useful. Primary Documentation (also known as supporting documentation): Recording and secure filing of primary documentation is vital. Primary documentation consists of the pieces of paper used to make or receive payments, such as receipts, invoices, statements, quotations, deposit slips, cheque stubs and bank statements. Receipts: The organization should write receipts for all money entering the organization, usually at the same time the money is received, and give the top copy of the receipt to the person making the payment. Those collecting cash should generally work in teams of at least two people, protecting them from allegations against them and helping ensure that all the money collected finds its way into the organization. If the cash box cannot be immediately emptied and counted, the organization should give the collectors a receipt for a sealed tin when they return it. When staff or volunteers collect money for fund-raising events (such as dances), they should be issued with a receipt when they bring the money to the organization. Purchasers of tickets do not need a receipt; the ticket itself functions as a receipt. Banking: The organization should put income into the bank as soon as possible, saving and filing deposit slips or bankbooks. Income receipt vouchers can supplement the deposit slips and provide details of the money's source. The organization should not leave cash in the office premises for longer than is necessary, and staff should not use income for petty cash. Expenditures: The organization should use payment vouchers, and attach or file any invoices, statements and receipts with them. It should not use ambiguous descriptions, such as "various", "sundry" or "miscellaneous", on payment vouchers. The person who prepares a payment voucher should not also sign cheques. Cheques should be signed by at least two people, usually the Treasurer and the President. The organization should avoid using cheques made payable to "bearer" or "cash", and use crossed cheques. Cash should only be used for small amounts (petty cash), with petty cash vouchers be used for all payments. Someone other than the cash handler should make spot checks on petty cash. Bookkeeping: The organization should keep books of account up to date, preferably on at least a weekly basis. Someone other than the bookkeeper should periodically check the bookkeeping entries against the primary documents. Use of non-cash resources: The organization should keep log books or registers for its non-cash assets and resources, such as vehicles, stamps, photocopying, telephones, stationery, premises and furniture. The log books should record who is using the resources, for what purpose. A recent analysis of one organization's fax bills revealed that over 60 per cent of fax machine usage was not related to the organization's work, but by keeping a register, the organization could recover the cost of the non-work-related usage. Checks, monitoring and reporting: Having procedures and recording information about income and expenditure and use of assets and resources is not enough by itself. The information must be monitored, checked and analyzed. For example, someone other than the invoice writer must examine invoices to make sure that the organization actually received the goods or services and that they were not used by others; non-cash asset registers must be periodically examined; actual expenditures must be compared with budgets. When checks and monitoring are complete, then the board and members should receive the information through reports. Reports may not need to be detailed, but they should provide decision makers and members with enough information to reassure them that the organization's financial affairs are in order and going according to plan. Appropriateness: Any and all of the above systems and procedures must be appropriate for their purpose and understood by the people who will use them. For example, there is no point in setting up a complex accounting process which requires a qualified bookkeeper or accountant if the organization has no access to anyone with those qualifications, or if it is impossible to get the necessary stationery to support the system. D. Fund-raising Many self-help organizations face difficulties in generating funds to meet operational costs, including personnel costs, office rent and communication expenses. Many donors do not usually provide funds for operational costs. Thus, special fund-raising events become an important means for generating these costs. Case study 2: Fund-raising in the Fiji Disabled Peoples Association (FDPA)7 Development, growth and initial funding of the FDPA In the 1960s and 1970s, Fijian people with disabilities gathered informally in the capital city of Suva to make their lives more interesting and enjoyable, and to provide mutual support. They bonded through sports, socializing and music as well as recognizing the common bond presented by their disabilities. At this informal stage, members paid their own way. By the end of the 1970s, there was growing international perception of the need for a reappraisal of policies and social attitudes regarding disability. In response, the United Nations declared the year 1981 as the International Year of Disabled Persons. This prompted Governments and communities to take a more thoughtful and planned approach to disability issues. In Fiji, concerned parties convened to discuss needs and future direction. They soon realized that a great amount of work was needed, and the Government recognized that it could not do everything necessary without assistance from NGOs. The United Nations initiative gave people with disabilities confidence that their concerns were legitimate and that they had the right to attempt to improve their lives and opportunities. Incorporation of the Fiji Paraplegic and Disabled People's Association soon followed in 1983. Through the 1980s interest continued to increase and several formal events were undertaken, including sports, training, and seminars/workshops. The group was still largely self-funding, with sporadic injections of project-specific funding from outside donors. Often the donor organizations initiated these grants. Management of the group was by consensus, and volunteers provided what little administration was needed from their own resources. Thus costs were kept to a minimum. Social and community events were organized which included modest fundraising through raffles, card games and gunu sede8 activities. These funds were used for social and sports events, contributions to members in need, purchase of medical supplies and the like. In 1988 the Association renamed itself the Fiji Disabled Peoples Association (FDPA), acquired permanently rented office premises, and took on its first full time employees, one local officer and one Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO) volunteer. This milestone in FDPA's history was the beginning of a continuing and largely rewarding relationship with the media and local business houses. Representatives from Government and other prominent personalities attended the office opening and contributions from the business community for furniture, equipment and stationeries were received. The presence of the British Ambassador and the British Government's willingness to underwrite initial costs added prominence and respectability. The opening publicity generated a further leap in awareness of disability issues and raised expectations of those with disabilities. Such expectations themselves were a generating force; the Association's Board and staff had to become performance-oriented. Not only that, but they had to show the public what they were doing, involving accountability and further use of the media. This full-time presence of the Association came, of course, at a dollar cost. Regular funds were now needed to pay core costs, such as rent, electricity, rates, salaries, stationery, telephone, postage and insurance. From 1988 until 1994, the British Overseas Development Administration (ODA) provided 100 per cent core funding for FDPA. Annual grants from ODA were released on a quarterly basis against a submitted, costed annual budget. ODA was assisted by the Pacific Field Office of VSO, the British volunteer sending agency, which provided local monitoring and implementation support. Core costs are the essential costs involved in keeping the organization operating but do not include project specific costs. In other words, they do not include costs of launching and running individual projects, such as workshops, the production, printing and distribution of posters, brochures and newsletters, and community-based rehabilitation programmes. Funds to operate projects had to be self-generated, or funded from other sources, such as corporate donors or Governments. In addition to undertaking a monitoring role, VSO assisted the Association by providing qualified British development volunteers from 1988 to the present time, with a one year gap in 1993-4. Until 1996 the in-country costs of these volunteers were included in the core budget funded by ODA, while VSO funded flights and the remaining volunteer support costs. ODA core funding of FDPA had grown from less then F$20,000 in 1988 to F$92,000 for 1993. 1993 was also the year ODA carried out a major review of its grant in aid to the Pacific, and in the context of a global rationalization, ODA took the decision to negotiate a planned withdrawal from funding of disability programmes in the Pacific. Clearly, this was going to affect FDPA greatly, and the Association had to prepare itself to become more financially independent. With funding from ODA, the Association was encouraged to consider longer-term strategic and operational planing. A series of planning meetings and seminars were held which culminated in October 1993 when the foundations for the future operation of the Association were laid, and FDPA's first three year strategic and operational plan was agreed on. Withdrawal by the donor was negotiated on the basis of the plan, with ODA agreeing to fund 100 per cent of core funding in 1994, 50 per cent in 1995 and 30 per cent in 1996, thus giving the Association the chance to progressively adjust its core funding base. FDPA planned to meet its core costs through a simple strategy. It would review all planned activity and divide anticipated costs into one of two categories û core costs, or project costs. Core funds, raised through fundraising, member subscriptions and income-generating activities, would meet the essential costs of keeping the Association and office functioning. Project funds, on the other hand, would be sought from Government and other donors to meet specific project-related costs. If project funds were not forthcoming, then expenditure could be deferred until funding became available. Although this strategy was simple, it was not easy to implement. There was initial reluctance by the Board and Chief Executive Officer to identify staff who were to be designated as project-specific, and their costs continued to be a burden on the core budget. This process was not begun until 1996, by which time unhealthy inroads had been made into financial reserves. Neither did FDPA initially identify and quantify income and cost centres, nor exercise effective budgetary control and monitoring. As a result, valuable time was lost and scarce reserves consumed on core costs. Others would do well to learn from this experience: if a strategy is devised and agreed upon, then it should be implemented without delay. Common methods of fund-raising For fund-raising, FDPA first considered the conventional methods, which are tried and tested and have proved their worth over the years. These methods include the following list (which is not exhaustive): (a) Dances and balls; (b) Musical events; (c) Raffles; (d) Sponsored walk- or wheel-a-thons; (e) Bring-and-buy (jumble or garage) sales; (f) Street collections; (g) Barbecues. FDPA successfully raises approximately 40 per cent of its headquarters' core operating costs through these activities, and branch offices rely almost entirely on them. Their success depends on good publicity, the use of the media, and the good will of friends of the Association who provide services or goods, such as entertainers or event venues, free of charge. This type of activity can be time-consuming to organize, and may lead to "donor fatigue" if held too often9. FDPA has found that nine to ten events of this kind each year is about optimum in Fiji. FDPA saw a need for continued, sustainable income and for professionally produced project proposal submissions. In response, it appointed a full-time Project Development and Fundraising Officer. Organization which do not need full-time officers may wish to set up a Board sub-committee using volunteers to carry out this work. Fundraising guidelines Organizations should consider the following guidelines in raising funds: (a) Emphasize the "fun" in "fundraising"; give supporters entertainment and value for their money. (b) Make the proper provision for financial accountability. Properly number the tickets for dances, balls, dinners and raffles, and the sponsorship forms for walk- or wheel-a-thons. (c) Record the ticket numbers given to sellers, to keep track of how much money should be returned. Issue receipts to ticket sellers when they return money from the sale of tickets. (d) Give some complimentary tickets to those who have provided services free of charge or otherwise been especially helpful. Remember, however, that the object of the exercise is to raise money. Keep a record of the complimentary tickets. (e) Carefully record expenditure and income for each event so you can see how much net income the event has generated. (f) Publicize the event. Call on the media, use posters, telephone or fax known supporters, advertise, etc. (g) Evaluate the event. Compare one event with another. This will help identify criteria that make for a successful event. Identify which events were more successful than others, and analyze what factors may have made them successful (e.g., weather, timing, location, publicity, value). Decide whether the investment of time and money was worthwhile; in doing so, take into consideration the subsidiary benefit of these events, which is to generate public awareness of the organization and the issues. (h) Involve members in fundraising, as ticket sellers or organizing volunteers. Member participation is important. It gives members a sense of purpose and belonging, and a feeling they are doing something worthwhile for their own cause. It also demonstrates members' interest in what is being done, and raises awareness by showing that people with disabilities can have fun and participate in community activities. (i) As far as possible, make event venues fully accessible to members and convenient for the supporting public. (j) Remember legalities, formalities and courtesies. The organization may need to seek formal permission for an event, or obtain a licence from the relevant authority. For example, raffles may be subject to legislation dealing with gambling, or street collections may need permission from local government authorities, District Officers or central Government. In some cases it may take time to obtain a licence. Plan well in advance (including publicity). If there is doubt about the legality of the event, check first with the police or local authority. (k) Any event occurring in a public place may require approval by police or local government authorities, or both. Even if approval is not required, police should be informed, provided with the time of the event and invited to be present if money will change hands in public places, or if there may be a traffic hazard from people using roads (such as in sponsored walks) or from parked cars. (l) Thank all those who helped and supported the event, regardless of how successful it was. The organization will surely need their help again. In addition to thanking people personally, FDPA usually places an advertisement in the daily newspaper; this also provides an opportunity to publicize the organization further. (m) Emphasize novelty and variety. Regular social events are generally not successful, as supporters become bored with attending the same thing time and again unless one can find the right market niche. FDPA has tried to add variety to dances and musical events by introducing different "themes"; e.g., jazz, cowboy night, rhythm & blues, music and dress from the 60s and 70s, masquerades. Special events In addition to the more conventional fundraising activities described above, FDPA organizes three or four special events each year. These are useful in providing a supplement to the more regular fundraising activities and, with co-operation from the media, usually focus a higher level of publicity. Auctions: Businesses and other organizations often find it easier to donate goods and services rather than cash; auctions use this fact to an organization's advantage. FDPA wrote to a number of businesses seeking donations of goods to be put up for auction. This attracted gifts of plane tickets, restaurant meals, resort and hotel accommodations, electrical appliances, household items, sporting goods, and more. (FDPA then raised the value of two donated rugby balls by inviting the winners of the regional under-21 rugby tournament to sign them.) The auctioneer was a prominent hotelier; the auction included some small, cheap novelty items (such as a hot water bottle) so that everyone could join in the bidding. The British Ambassador and family offered a prestigious venue for the auction. FDPA billed the event as a "Cheese and Wine evening with Auction" and sold tickets at $6.00 each. FDPA contacted embassies, diplomatic missions, grocery store owners and others to provide of cheese, wine and snack foods; the response was better than expected, demonstrating donors' good will. The auction was a splendid evening and alone raised over eight per cent of FDPA's annual core cost target. Film premiere nights. An organization can persuade a local cinema to allow the NGO to sell tickets to the opening night of a new film. A fixed charge, paid from ticket sales, is made for the use of the cinema. Usually, because it is an opening night and for a good cause, people are willing to pay a little more for their tickets. A film dealing with disabilities, such as "My Left Foot" or "Shine", is ideal, but not essential. Marathons. Over the last three years FDPA (Rewa Branch) organized two around the island wheel-a-thons. The most recent of these was intended to raise funds for the building of a branch office and meeting hall. The wheel-a-thon took a week from start to finish, covered a distance of approximately 450 kilometres and was a high-profile media event. Prominent community figures opened and closed the event, and welcomed the team in each major town and city en route. FDPA informed schools, businesses, town councils, hotels and restaurants along the route of the date and time of the team's arrival, so that collections could be held and refreshments provided. A national vehicle dealership provided support vehicles and drivers free of charge. A telephone company donated a cellular phone and paid call charges. This enabled the team to keep in touch with the FDPA office and, importantly, with the media, who could then relay several live radio broadcasts. A great deal of advance preparation, logistics and co-ordination, involving well over 150 letters or faxes and numerous telephone calls, were required to make the event a success. Chartered Ship. FDPA's Suva branch, with assistance from the owners of a ship, recently organized a round-the-bay sunset cruise. Poor weather made this event less successful than anticipated. Fortunately, the Suva branch took the precaution of having the event underwritten by the ship's owners, so that if it failed to raise sufficient funds to meet direct costs, the branch would not be left holding the bill. National Awareness Week Since 1988 FDPA has declared the first week of June each year as a week for national awareness. The week includes elements of fundraising and membership recruitment. This is FDPA's largest single fundraising activity of the year; it is sponsored by radio, TV and the national press. In past years, the week has contributed up to 35 per cent of FDPA's annual core costs. Because FDPA has been regular and reliable about holding the awareness week, the media and regular donors now know each year that the week will take place, and make arrangements accordingly. In addition, other NGOs know that this is the FDPA fundraising week, and generally do not schedule their events to clash with FDPA. Planning begins months in advance and involves not only the Fundraising and Project Development officer, but the entire staff and many volunteers from affiliated NGOs and members. The week is not a single event but a series of events, at least one on each day of the week. Some events are pure fundraising, some directed towards members, some directed to Government or other specific targets, some for awareness raising and education, and some just for fun. The week is a team effort, but it takes a tremendous amount of organizing. The Fundraising and Project Development officer has to use all his or her skills in management, supervision and delegation to coordinate and make sure that events go ahead on time and as planned. In past years, FDPA has assisted with Gold Heart day, a day organized by Radio Fiji and the Variety Club to raise funds for children with disabilities, to ensure that the week has maximum publicity and coverage. FDPA assists Radio Fiji with its Gold Heart day by selling gold heart badges and returning the proceeds to Radio Fiji, which in turn passes them on to special schools. Radio Fiji reciprocates by providing FDPA with significant publicity for the week, advertising events and broadcasting interviews with FDPA staff, members, other disability-oriented NGOs and relevant government officers. In addition, Fiji TV One provides advertising to FDPA and Radio Fiji for their fundraising efforts, and both major daily newspapers cover events and usually print disability- awareness supplements. It is useful to have a special emblem or mascot for the week with which the general public can identify. The Gold Heart badges provide this to some degree, but FDPA also has its own mascot: Lucky the clown. The clown (a member of the staff made up in a clown's outfit) is present at all events and tours the town during the late afternoon and evenings, visiting night clubs and other entertainment centres. The "week" actually lasts eight days (Saturday to Saturday inclusive). This way, it is possible to have both the opening and closing event on a Saturday, when a good public turnout can be expected. During the opening and closing events, the business community and the media contribute to awareness week by providing venues, entertainers, entertainment, services and prizes at free or reduced prices, and patronizing events. Business staff also provide assistance by setting up and attending stalls and carrying out collections. This helps to minimize costs, maximize the financial benefits to FDPA and provide supporters with enjoyable and exciting events. Future special events The United Nations has declared an International Day of Disabled Persons, to raise the general public's awareness of the needs and rights of people with disabilities. By making use of the general publicity surrounding the day, NGOs can enhance their own fundraising and awareness-raising activities. FDPA has also begun talks with the Fiji Philatelic Bureau to discuss getting a first-day stamp issue dedicated to the Association's work. Pre-planning is essential for a promotion like this; the Philatelic Bureau has already determined its first-day stamp issues for the next two years. In addition, the FDPA is considering issuing its own limited-edition first-day covers (envelopes), which may be marketed through prominent international philatelic concerns. Membership fees and internal fundraising. Membership fees are one way of raising funds, but they must be considered carefully. People generally join an organization to get some benefit from being a member. The primary purpose of FDPA is to advocate and lobby on behalf of people with disabilities, and the benefits of membership may not be immediately apparent to individual members. Furthermore, FDPA's strength is that it speaks for a large number of those with disabilities, and many prospective members claim they cannot afford membership at $5 per annum. Organizations must ask whether they want a large membership at a nominal membership fee, or a small membership at a larger membership fee. Note that, although 1,000 members paying $1 each raises the same income as 200 members paying $5 each, with 1,000 members the organization has a greater voice, more impact, and more opportunity of raising funds. For these reasons, FDPA will review membership fees at its next annual general meeting. Internal fundraising means raising funds from members. In 1996, FDPA tried to return to its social origins and resurrect a members' Social Club. A three-person committee, two members of which were staff, organized weekly events for members. Initial response was good, but the number attending events fell when people realized that not all profits were returned to the direct benefit of the club itself. (About 50 per cent of profits went to the club, with the remainder contributing to FDPA's core costs.) Organizing events was draining on staff who volunteered time, and after less than six months, the club expired from lack of interest by members. The club had contributed about $200 to core costs and purchased assets such as a vidividi board, dart board and playing cards. The lesson to be learned is that fundraising through internal social events should be driven by membership demand, rather than imposed. Interestingly, less than a year since the club ceased, the members themselves now wish to reconsider its establishment. Other ways of internal fundraising include selling goods (such as greeting cards, calendars, or novelty items) to members at discounted prices, through over-the-counter sales or mail order. This has worked for FDPA when a corporate supporter (an exporting clothing manufacturer) donated clothing "seconds" to the Association for onward sale to its members10. Future items for possible sale include a souvenir presentation calendar planned for the year 2000; the calendar will feature the 12 posters to be developed between 1997 and 1999 as part of the "Celebration 2000" advocacy programme. Income-generating activities, corporate donors and sponsorship FDPA has not yet established any sustainable income-generating activities. However, it is currently setting up two such activities. The first of these is a facility for repairing, refurbishing and manufacturing wheelchairs and other assistive devices. Several years of research and planning have already been carried out, including a market-research study conducted by students and staff of the University of the South Pacific. The South Pacific Disability Trust Fund and commercial groups in New Zealand have offered financial and technical assistance. The business will require an initial investment of approximately $20,000. On a smaller scale, the FDPA "Pathfinders" youth group will shortly start making paper by hand, using recycled materials. Initially, this will be a small-turnover, high-value product directed mainly at expatriates and tourists. It is labour-intensive, involving little capital and therefore low risk; such a situation is ideal for youth groups and self-starters. The same youth group is researching the feasibility of setting up a regular car-wash business as a project to generate employment and income for youth. Any income-generating project is a business. As such, it is likely to be in competition with other businesses, and must be operated efficiently and effectively on commercial lines if it is to succeed. The organizers of such a project must carry out market research to find out who, if anyone, will buy the product or service in question before committing a large investment. Note that feasibility studies should include provision (through a depreciation reserve) for reinvestment of capital equipment. Other possible business schemes include collecting used stamps and telephone cards for sale to collectors. Publicity and the media Publicity, usually generated through the media, is critically important to achieving the primary objectives of many self-help organizations: to bring about awareness of the issues, to educate the general public, to lobby on behalf of people with disabilities and to raise funds for continued operation. Without media and other publicity, FDPA would be muted and less effective. FDPA has carefully fostered a relationship with the press, radio and television. It has found the following actions generally effective for an organization dealing with the media: (a) Encourage the personal support of people in the media, inviting them to events. Familiarize them with the organization, its goals and ambitions, and especially its needs. Solicit the ideas of media people, so that they become involved. (b) Make use of the free community-service announcements provided by many television stations, radio stations and newspapers. (c) Give the media interesting stories about the organization, what it is doing, and what it needs. (d) Avoid being too demanding. Asking too much too often can earn the tag "here they come again". One large request can be better than many small ones. (e) Plan yearly requirements. Sit with media representatives to discuss working together. (f) Be prepared when asking for media assistance. Fully explain the event, how it is to be run, where funds raised will go, how much will go on event expenses, and why media assistance is needed. Ask for their professional suggestions of how they may best be of assistance. (g) Show media representatives how they may benefit from being involved (e.g., through banners and other media recognition of their participation). (h) Have a definite person in the media to contact. Ask who else to deal with; do not go to a higher level of the media organization, ignoring the main contact person. (i) Never ask for personal favours while on the air, regardless of how close a relationship may be with a media representative. It will likely annoy and embarrass them. (j) Suggest personality involvement. Ask who to send new releases to, how often would they like to receive them, and whether there will be opportunities for live interviews and name association. (k) Make sure to follow up every point discussed with media representatives in writing. As well as making it more likely that requests will be granted, this demonstrates a professional approach. (l) Since media organizations are looking for a marketing advantage in being associated with charitable organizations, give them something to work with. (m) Put forward many ideas. The more ideas advanced to the media and the more ways media organizations can benefit, the better the chance of getting them involved. (n) Never take the media for granted. Show them you are grateful for their support. Contact details: Fiji Disabled Peoples Association 355 Waimanu Road, Suva, G.P.Box 15178, Suva, Fiji Tel: (679) 311203 Fax: (697)301161 E. Gender sensitivity Many women with disabilities are involved in the activities of self-help organizations. However, few are in decision-making or management positions. To meet the needs of women with disabilities within the organization, specific measures need to be implemented (e.g., gender sensitivity training for all leaders and members, establishment of women's committees and equal training opportunities for women with disabilities). Gender equity must be a goal at every level of an organization, not just its lower ranks. Case study 3: The Women's Committee in the Asian Blind Union11 Introduction This study is about the development of a focus on gender issues within a self-help organization of blind people. It describes events responsible for the creation of a women's committee in the Asian Blind Union (ABU), as these are directly related to blind women's increased participation in ABU. Some of the facts described within may annoy or hurt some colleagues, but the purpose of narrating those facts is purely constructive û to share ABU's experience with women with disabilities in other organizations who may have faced similar difficulties. They may be encouraged in assuming a more active role in the self-help movement if they find their experience is not so different from that of the women in ABU. ABU is one of the seven regional unions of the World Blind Union (WBU), a single international forum of organizations for the blind in the world, whose members come from 170 countries and belong to 600 national-level organizations. Every country has a certain number of seats in WBU; each delegate represents his or her organization and country. Delegates are often the leaders of a national organization. WBU and ABU have executive boards and sub-committees to look into specific areas of concern. The Committee on the Status of Blind Women enjoys a special status of importance in WBU. The chairperson of this Committee becomes the ex-officio of the executive board and all regional unions. This arrangement is supposed to be replicated in the regional unions of WBU. The regional union's chair is elected or appointed by its executive. The seven regional chairs and the international chairperson of the women's committee form the international committee on the status of blind women at WBU. Similarly, the national organizations are expected to have a focus on gender issues, and to this effect, a formal structure is also expected to function at the local level. WBU and its regional unions derive knowledge from the experience of national-level organizations; in turn, WBU disseminates the knowledge it gains through its world-wide network. WBU is built on this foundation. The developments and concerns of the national organizations influence the workings of WBU and, above all, the policy decisions at the international and regional level. Gender concerns surfaced in the WBU at its very inception, but have gained momentum in the past decade. The relatively low participation rates of blind women in WBU and its regional unions have helped lead to a fairly gender-indifferent environment in the organization for a long time. But gender representation has become more balanced at the physical, intellectual and functional levels within WBU over the past decade. This is well recognized, and it has a clear bearing on the thinking and functioning of WBU's regional and national affiliates. NAB: a national affiliate in ABU The National Association for the Blind (NAB) in India is one of the national affiliates of WBU and ABU. It has two seats on the boards of WBU and ABU. In the early 1980s, a committee on the status of blind women was set up in Bombay at the NAB headquarters. This action resulted in the setting up of an impressive women's department at Ray Road, Bombay. The department looks like a small institute, but undertakes several activities for the empowerment of blind women. These include training in leadership, communication and independent travelling skills, home management, switchboard operation, tailoring, jewellery making, packing and assembly-line operations. The centre has a marketing division that ensures the sale of products in national and international markets. The department brings out a women's magazine, and has also instituted a Neelam Kanga Award to recognize outstanding professional blind women. Similarly, the branches of NAB in Haryana, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Delhi have a focus on gender issues. NAB Gujarat, in collaboration with the Blind Men's Association, implements a large Community-Based Rehabilitation Project which allows wider contact with blind women in rural and developing areas. Despite the sensitivity at NAB towards special concerns of blind women, both seats at the WBU were represented by (very capable) male NAB members until 1996, even though there were blind women with outstanding abilities within the organization. History In 1993, NGOs were forming forums at the state and city level to lobby for the enactment of a comprehensive law to protect the rights of people with disabilities in India. The meetings of such forums would often involve two or three women and 20 to 30 men. Women would often encourage each other to attend these meetings; those who were mobile would help others who could otherwise not reach the meetings. The women put forth some gender-related suggestions to be included in the draft bill for which the Government of India had invited the views of people with disabilities. These suggestions were not included, as many male colleagues believed gender-specific recommendations in a law would be inappropriate. In 1994, the committee took an initiative to review the impact of its existing policies and programmes, as the members felt an acute need for change to make them more relevant. A new charter of the committee was drawn up and a memorandum of demands, based on this exercise, was submitted to the Welfare Minister of the Government of India. At this time, NAB involved Mrs. Promila Dandavate, a veteran women's leader of a political organization, to help bring about unity with larger women's organizations. Together, they attempted to get recommendations more favourable to women incorporated in the Disability Act. As enacted in 1995, India's disability law has only two clauses targeting women: one to ensure the representation of disabled women on all the decision-making bodies envisaged in the Act, and one to submit a gender-disaggregated report on the implementation of the Act by the Chief Commissioner to the Parliament. Women in NAB were not satisfied with this arrangement, but were happy that the law ensured some visibility of the women in policy matters as a starting point. The first gender meeting in ABU In June 1995, owing to the obligation of the newly enacted law, the Government of India included one blind woman in the official delegation to the United Nations to take part in the ESCAP Meeting to Review the Progress of the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled persons. Sawart Pramoonslip of Thai Blind Union invited the author to participate in the proceedings of their meeting on 25 June 1995. In this meeting, other blind women participating in the ESCAP Review Meeting were also present; they came from Bangladesh, Bhutan, Fiji, Indonesia and Thailand. The main issue discussed at this meeting was blind women's low rate of participation in ABU; out of a delegation of 42 from Asia to WBU at the time, there was only one woman delegate. Indeed, in the history of ABU, there had never been more than one woman delegate. This became a matter of concern for all who were present at this meeting. Another problem was that the Women's Committee of ABU had no Chair during the current term. Attenders of the meeting made the following suggestions and conclusions: (a) Women in Asia should use the period between June 95 and June 96 in preparing themselves for taking part in the Fourth General Assembly of ABU, in which they could ensure that a Chair would be properly appointed for the Women's Committee; (b) Women should share their concerns with each other and keep each other informed of the happenings in their countries, enriching each other with such knowledge; (c) Women should form an informal working group and elect a convenor (the group was formed and a convenor, Anuradha Mohit, was elected at the meeting); (d) Women were not visible at the regional and international level because only a few women held important positions in the NGOs, although many women were active at the lower level of the NGOs' functioning. The participants in the Bangkok meeting returned in high spirits with a new awareness and a determination that gender would be included in their organizations' agenda at the local level. The objective was to emancipate women from the confinement of ignorance, economic dependence, low self-esteem and low aspirations, and above all to create a society free from the fear of physical, emotional and mental exploitation, within the parameters of their limited strength, limited access to information, and resources. A war of letters One Indian man soon sent a letter to the Chairperson of ABU. The letter writer had strong reservations that giving recognition to the informal blind women's group might keep on hold all the rules and regulations of WBU. He also abhorred the idea of Asian women imposing an Indian as their convenor. After a few days, the Chairperson of ABU sent a reply which supported the objections raised by the "law-abiding ABU delegate" and levelled charges against the Secretary General of WBU. The Secretary General's reply expressed full support to the rule of law and sanctity of the constitution, but underlined the need to further the struggle for the rights of visually disabled women and the need to take a positive view of the matter. He emphasized the importance of participation of regional bodies in the work of WBU. He also advised the letter writer to respect the decisions of women members in having elected a woman convenor themselves. This exchange of letters went on for a number of rounds. It made women members more aware of the need for circumspection and of their active role in ABU. They realized that they would need to be vigilant and tactful, differentiating friends from foes. Above all, they would need to attract more blind women into their organizations. The fourth General Assembly of ABU û new challenges, new success After a great deal of effort on their part and that of sympathetic senior members, three women attended the Fourth General Assembly of ABU on the official delegation, one each from India, Malaysia and Thailand. They had actively lobbied with their male colleagues from national organizations to get the working group of blind women ratified for official status by the ABU Assembly û a difficult task. They also participated in the General Assembly discussions on comprehensive planning of education of the visually handicapped and employment of blind people. All the women participants were cooperation in the deliberations. One participated in the Resolution Committee. Above all, the women delegates gave evidence of their mature understanding in their efforts for furthering the cause of women's participation. On the third day of the Assembly, elections to all the posts were conducted and completed except for the Chair of the Women's Committee. Suddenly signs of tension began to be felt in the otherwise positive and congenial atmosphere. Tension, barely perceptible at first, slowly started building up. And then, it was revealed that the ABU Chairperson had virtually turned down the proposal for appointment of the Women's Committee Chairperson. Women delegates were determined to use all available options to turn the decision in their favour. They approached representatives of funding agencies, officers of WBU, women sympathizers and sympathetic male delegates for their help. Together, they persuaded ABU to display a more positive stance towards the selection of a Women's Committee Chairperson. The ABU Chairperson spoke in stringent tones about outside interference, which he said he could not tolerate. He had, therefore, deferred the election to the post of Chairperson. But he soon abandoned this position and announced that Anuradha Mohit could make positive contributions to the work of the ABU as the Chairperson of the Women's Committee. He invited other nominations. As none came up, her election was unanimous. Despite the questionable circumstances, most colleagues promised support to her and women delegates adopted an encouraging tone. Preparation of the report on the status of blind women in Asia At the first World Blind Women's Forum in Toronto, women members of ABU were asked to present a report on the status of blind women in Asia. This was a difficult task, partially because time, information and resources were scarce, and also because women with disabilities were not in the habit of documenting their experiences or observations (especially in a foreign language like English), making it difficult to express their views. Immediately after the appointment of the Chair of the Women's Committee in Asia, the committee had its first time-bound assignments. This provided a new found incentive to make blind women active. They were busy rummaging through files and reports available from NGOs and libraries. Most of this information was in the control of men, who occupied important positions in the organizations. However, women in Bangladesh, India and Sri Lanka got full support from their male counterparts in compiling gender-relevant reports for the world forum. They had to cull information from the contents of the reports presented by Governments and NGOs at various international forums. There was hardly any direct reference to the information they sought, but the exercise gave them insight into the thinking of women's organizations and the international and national stands on the rights of people with disabilities generally. They did benefit substantially from the publications of ESCAP and the International Labour Office. They presented an 82-page report entitled "Coming to Light" at the Forum, which addresses a comprehensive range of issues. Second informal meeting of blind women Eleven Asian women participated in the first World Blind Women's Forum, from nine different Asian countries. They took a day to reflect on the decisions taken at the World Forum, consolidate gains and chalk out a tentative agenda for the ensuing Women's Committee in Asia. Highlights of their meeting were the following: (a) Women felt there was an absence of a forum within national organizations to articulate their concerns and ideas, as most national organizations have either a weak women's committee or none at all. (b) ABU should use human and material resources in its empowerment programmes to reverse the illiteracy, unemployment and low social status of blind women. (c) The media should be sensitize to blind women's concerns, thus moulding public opinion in their favour, generating a national debate around their issues, developing skills among blind women for writing articles and documenting experiences in order to share them at all levels. (d) Blind women need leadership training seminars and workshops at all levels, taking into consideration the different needs and levels of understanding of blind women. (e) The women's committee should take steps towards developing and strengthening blind women's networks at local, national and regional levels for sharing expertise, skills, experience, material and information in order to empower each other and build their solidarity. These concerns had a direct bearing on the emergence of the Plan of Action of women's committee in Asia today. This meeting was extremely useful, as they had anticipated little other possibility of direct interaction in the near future, and their past experience of international forums had involved limited benefit, as participants often did not get the opportunities to reflect on the decisions and plan future agendas in the light of collective decisions that emerged. Towards activating a women's committee In the fourth ABU General Assembly at Kuala Lumpur, women were determined to create a modest and functional Women's Committee in ABU. A formal request was sent to the ABU Chairperson forwarding nominations for the members of Women's Committee, followed after several weeks by a reminder, and then another reminder. But all efforts proved futile; no nominations were obtained. There was little cooperation from the heads of the national delegations, who were supposed to forward nominations. In February 1997, Ms. Mohit, Chair of the Women's Committee, wrote a letter to the ABU Chairperson requesting him to facilitate a meeting of the Women's Committee to develop a plan of action. In this letter, she did not ask for forwarded nominations of committee members; she proposed a developing action plan assuming that all the active women members from different countries were official colleagues. The response was prompt and encouraging. However, the women knew they could not sit together to complete the plan. They had to use documents like the minutes of the ABU General Assembly, the Toronto meeting of Asian Women and the Bangkok meeting of 1995, as well as the Resolution of World Women's Forum, the Agenda for Action for the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons and the country papers included in the "Coming To Light" report. All these documents reflected the concerns of blind women from Asia to some extent, making it possible to safely develop a draft action plan. The plan was sent for review and comments to all the women colleagues in Asia and also to some officers of WBU and the Chairperson of ABU. Most sent in their comments and observations which were incorporated in the second draft. All this was sent to the blind women members in Asia, as they have the final say on the action plan. Their suggestions and modifications were incorporated in the final plan, and then on behalf of the women's committee it was submitted for financial support to the ABU Chairperson and a Norwegian donor agency. The Chairperson soon granted approval of funds. Second meeting of the executive of ABU A constitution committee was created to fine-tune rules of operation and make suitable amendments to the ABU constitution in the light of decisions taken at the 4th WBU General Assembly and the amendments made in the WBU constitutions. The Women's Committee used this opportunity to raise the following concerns: (a) One woman member should be included in the constitution committee, to ensure that due note of women's views is taken while framing the rules of operations in the constitution; (b) There should be at least one woman member in all the sub-committees of ABU; (c) Complete parity of male and female members in all the delegations should be achieved in a phased manner by the turn of the century. During the September 1996 meeting of Asian blind women in Toronto, they had discovered each other's strengths and weaknesses. They consciously used this to include at least one blind woman on every sub-committee in ABU. Khezan's skills could benefit the sports committee, Jasmine's experience in accounting could benefit the ABU finance management system, Sawart of Thailand had deep interest in the question of employment and Leena of Bangladesh had a good knowledge of several languages and was interested in education. Activities of the ABU Women's Committee and resource mobilization NAB had indicated at the executive meeting at Kathmandu that they would only be able to partly finance implementing a plan of action for a period of three years in seven Asian countries. When this was clear, the Women's Committee approached the Swedish and Danish Associations for the Blind. After two rounds of discussions, it was agreed that the plans in Nepal and Sri Lanka could be financed by the Danish Society. NAB could take care of the plans in Pakistan, Bangladesh and Thailand. Malaysia was in a position to raise funds internally. As for India, NAB and SRF Sweden agreed to share the responsibility. The main activities are to be carried out during a period of three years. These activities have been selected carefully to empower women leaders in different NGOs in Asian countries so that they can effectively use their position in meeting the objectives of mobilizing the public, government and media attention and in order to multiply their strength by reaching out to more blind women through a series of activity envisaged in the plan of action. The activities are the following: (a) Work towards forming a Women's Committee at the National Level in the member countries of ABU; (b) Prepare a document highlighting goals and objectives of the Women's Committee and lay down guidelines for membership, elections, etc., outlining the proposed programme of action for the Women's Committee; (c) Organize an annual conference-cum-workshop of the Asian Blind Union Women's Committee members and the blind women members of the organizing country on gender, legal, and organizational matters, and also on communication and assertiveness skills; (d) Commission studies and conduct a sample survey to document factors causing low visibility and low participation of blind girls in programmes of education, health, vocational training, employment and social life; (e) Prepare a report on the status of infrastructure for blind women and girls in particular, and women and girls in general, in the member countries, developed by the National Government, Provincial Government and NGOs; (f) Develop and disseminate fact-sheets and profiles of successful blind women from different spheres of life, including successful housewives and women from the rural areas, to be shared with local media people and member organizations once in every quarter. Donor agencies have played an especially positive role in furthering women's advancement. In the recent past, whenever they have provided funds in the Asian region, they have consulted the Women's Committee to ensure that these schemes are gender-favourable before according their support. This consultation not only moves forward towards gender strengthening in local-level organizations, but also improves understanding of the status of women in South Asia. This strategy has also enhanced the chances of the ABU Women's Committee of establishing a wider contact with women at local level. As the Committee is working towards increased participation of women at the ABU level, it wishes to do the same at local-level organizations of blind people. It endeavours to achieve this through the members of the women's committees, members of the ABU Executive and resources provided by the funding agencies and their advice on selective matters. The policy decisions taken at WBU and ABU and their local impact The relatively low participation of blind women is attributed to the lower visibility of their concerns in the organization of the blind. Often the factors causing lower participation are considered to be poor commitment, lack of initiative and low motivation. But certain other ground realities cause this situation, such as poverty, poor transport and difficult hilly terrain. In India, the privatization of public transport and rising cost of travel has further impeded blind women's ability to travel. In Pakistan and Bangladesh, women are also expected to stay indoors. An important initiative is to create a supportive environment. Such was the understanding of one group of blind women who numbered only seven in Asia. At the first World Forum, women had pledged to share skills and knowledge with each other, and give the gift of literacy to another blind sister with this enlightenment. They learned that it was very difficult to proficiently manage a job and a family together. Job, family and culture restricted their husbands' cooperation in upbringing of children and managing the domestic affairs. This left little if any time with them for political activism. On the other hand, many uneducated, poverty-stricken blind women had their own problems that were enough to keep them away from the organization. The agenda was launched under these constraints. Impact of the policy decisions taken at ABU and WBU on national-level organizations Asian women delegates had pointed out the gross under-representation of women in national organizations. The Plan of Action specifically has a focus on the setting up and strengthening of women's units at the national level. Here it is worthwhile to recall an incident regarding the contents of a letter written by the Secretary General of National Federation of the Blind: "We strongly feel that we should not repeat the mistake of taking up activities in an isolated and ad hoc manner. In view of this, may I request your good self to consider establishing a coordination committee or a Forum at the national level of the major NGOs in the field or of at least all national affiliates of WBU. "We will be very glad to extend our cooperation in your efforts to bring all major NGOs together on a single platform on the question of bringing the issues of blind women in focus." The reply to this letter urged all the activists in self-help organizations for the blind to forge a united front and a coordinated plan of action for the uplift of women in general and disabled women in particular. This was the period when the women's movement was at its peak and women were relentlessly struggling to secure a reservation of 30 per cent of the seats in the legislative bodies and in government jobs. All women organizations were united on this issue. At this juncture, had they not put up a concerted joint action plan to give visibility to blind women's concerns by increased participation of blind women in blind organizations, blind women were bound to be on the sidelines of the women's movement. As a result of its dogged follow-up action, the Women's Committee succeeded in receiving a positive response to its cause from six out of seven major organizations. The Blind Men's Association, Ahmedabad, offered to host the first Unity Meet. Some important outcomes of this meet were the following: (a) Creation of a women's committee to be solely managed by the blind women within their organization, set up in a period of six months; (b) Immediate adoption of at least two blind women on the executive boards of their organizations; (c) Preferential recruitment policy to promote employment opportunities to competent blind women; (d) Submission of gender-disaggregated information in their periodic reports. It was considered more expedient to mobilize blind women on women's issues rather than creating separate organizations of blind women. Before fully activating a women's committee, it would be necessary to ensure organizational support beforehand. While the Women's Committee gave adequate importance to mobilizing NGOs of disabled persons, it gave equal importance to forging alliances with women with other disabilities. In pursuance of this goal, it held discussions at the local level first and then at the national level. It was then decided to forward a joint position on the issue of disabled women's rights in policy matters, and to participate in the celebration of International Women's Day and other such occasions jointly. The committee worked out a strategy to achieve a closer alliances with the women's movement so that disabled women's perspective reaches the platform of a mature and strong social movement. As a result of all such efforts, India's Ninth Five-Year Plan has a focus on the disabled women and girl child. This is the first plan which has recognized the need to include their concerns. The Ministry of Welfare has formed an exclusive core group to ensure that all disabled girls and women are covered under the various schemes for their welfare. The report has not come out as yet, but a cycle of events is slowly and steadily but firmly unfolding. A beginning has been made for recognition of the peculiar circumstances of the women with disabilities. The NGOs of disabled persons and the women's organizations have become active on matters such as legal literacy, reservations in employment and education of girls with disabilities. This is also happening in Malaysia and Thailand. Conclusion The issues which are under-represented in the organizations of disabled persons could be best addressed by the disabled group that is most adversely affected by the situation. At the same time, in a democratic organization, for a minority view to prevail, it is necessary to launch a persuasive, aggressive and assertive campaign simultaneously within the folds of the organization. Unless there are sufficient indications of enlarged support to a minority concern, empirical data coupled with international and national policy decisions should be extensively used to generate debate and discussions around matters which are otherwise perceived as less important. The target of establishing a formal structure with clear-cut aims and objectives, and well-spelled-out norms for its functioning, should be the ultimate objective. A formal structure can ensure stability, continuity and growth of an idea so that minority view point is turned into a majority opinion, which is necessary to bring change at the grass roots. Strategies to motivate blind women and inculcate good self-concept to achieve change appear dwindling, because blind women's low self-esteem, eroded through a continuous de-humanizing negative attitude of society, makes their emancipation rather difficult. Therefore, it is the more educated blind women who will have to consciously reach out to those who are locked in complete isolation. They will have to enhace their advocacy and communication skills, and commitment to gender and disability equality as, at the moment, a vast range of responsibilities rest on their shoulders. The onus of leadership in other social movements has also been on the shoulders of the more articulate section of the society, so it is not a new phenomenon. Blind women will have to carefully share responsibilities among themselves and not criticize each other for their inabilities. In fact, each may have special attitudes and abilities enabling her to perform a suitable role. This could be the role of an administrator, a mass leader, an accountant, a writer, a lawyer or a political activist, among many others. All such roles are required to be played within an organization. Expecting one or two persons to perform all these roles would only be unrealistic because there would be greater chances of facing frustration, stress and early burnout. Women will have to carefully tread their path in their journey to liberation, as there is always a danger of being swept off by unrealistic expectations of one's own self and of others. Contact details: Ms. Anuradha Mohit Chair, Women's Committee, ABU c/o NAB-CBR Network Sector 5, R.K. Puram New Delhi 110022, India Fax: (91-11) 301-0917 F. Organizational continuity: Development of new leaders Many self-help organizations have not trained younger members for management and leadership positions. As a consequence, the organizations face difficulty in recruiting new members and breaking the status quo. In order to create and maintain an active organization, leaders should always look to the succession of leadership to the younger generation. The true test of a person's leadership is in what happens when he or she is no longer a leader. Case study 4: Training new leaders at KAMPI, Philippines12 Introduction: The Katipunan ng Maykapansanan sa Philipinas, Inc (KAMPI) Years of perseverance by disabled leaders have strengthened self-help organizations in the Philippines. While self-help groups have been around for some time, they have only recently achieved a level of sustained growth. This may be because people with disabilities in the Philippines have now reached a stage where they are empowered to govern themselves. Over the past decade, many self-help groups began to form in the Philippines. People with disabilities started establishing self-help groups to prove that they can be partners with the rest of society in delivering necessary social services to fellow people with disabilities. This occurred as these people gradually realized they could grow from being service users to being service providers. The Katipunan ng Maykapansanan sa Philipinas, Inc (KAMPI) was established in 1990, during the Second National Congress of Persons With Disabilities held in Bago City, when a group of disabled leaders organized themselves to form a national federation of organizations for people with disabilities. Today, KAMPI's membership consists of 206 self-help groups from all over the Philippines. KAMPI aims to enable people with disabilities to become equal and productive members of Filipino society. It works to achieve structural changes and adjustments that will remove all barriers hindering the full participation of people with disabilities in all endeavours. KAMPI engages in many activities, from issue advocacy to direct service provision. KAMPI's advocacy programmes include lobbying at the international, national and local government levels, awareness raising on disability issues, and the dissemination of a national newsletter. The services KAMPI provides include training and livelihood assistance for its various chapters. KAMPI's major concern is to actively assist grassroots organizations of people with disabilities in rural areas. At least 85 per cent of the chapter members are grassroots disability organizations in need of various forms of assistance, such as funding aid for income-generating projects, technical assistance in resource generation and mobilization, programme development and planning, and the acquisition of assistive devices. At the local level, KAMPI has helped provide rehabilitation and therapy services to poor and severely disabled Filipino children through its Stimulation and Therapeutic Activity Centre (STAC). The STAC is a major component of KAMPI's milestone project in partnership with the Danish National Society of Polio and Traffic Accident Victims (PTU-Denmark), entitled "Breaking Barriers Philippines". The STAC is continuously gaining support from both local and national Government. Today, there are five STACs in five pilot areas around the Philippines, providing free, comprehensive rehabilitation and therapy services to almost a thousand children. KAMPI's membership has grown quickly over the past seven years, and projections state that it will have more than 500 chapter members by the next century. This figure is based on KAMPI's ability to continuously increase its membership through active advocacy in the grassroots communities. The development of new grassroots leaders is crucial in ensuring the continuity of any national grassroots organization, especially one with the size and scope of KAMPI. This is why KAMPI continues to form new chapters and identify new leaders in different parts of the country through active community organizing. Leaders and leadership KAMPI defines leadership as the ability to gain consensus and commitment to common objectives beyond minimum organizational requirements, and to attain those objectives with the contribution and satisfaction of the work group. Good leaders must therefore be able to bring out the best possible performance from each and every member of a group. Thus, KAMPI looks for the following elements in its leaders: (a) Mass appeal: KAMPI's leadership is grounded on mass appeal, and KAMPI always maintains a close relationship with grassroots disabled people. (b) Initiative: KAMPI takes the lead in undertaking its activities, with or without support from Government or the private sector. It is therefore crucial that KAMPI's leaders possess the initiative to stay at the forefront of disability issues and initiate new efforts, not necessarily relying on support from other sources. (c) Democratic sense of authority: KAMPI believes that the democratic opinion of the group must always be respected in the decision-making process while at the same time preserving its sense of authority. (d) Articulate: Good leaders must have good communication skills in order to articulate their ideas. (e) Foresight: A good leader must know what to expect. In identifying possible leaders, KAMPI looks for people with disabilities who possess these characteristics, and also tries to develop these qualities further through training in people with disabilities who show potential. Recruiting new leaders KAMPI usually identifies potential leaders by their active participation in various disability-related activities in the community, such as training seminars, symposia on disability issues, consultation workshops on government disability policies, conferences, and advocacy campaigns. In recruiting new leaders, KAMPI also looks for certain skills which it considers crucial to maintaining the organizational continuity of the federation. First, a good leader must be well grounded in community organizing, because the ability to mobilize people and resources is an important component of KAMPI's work. Second, advocacy and awareness-raising are vital to KAMPI's work and disability work in general, so experience with them is important. At present, KAMPI's leaders come from varied backgrounds. Locomotor, visual, hearing and mental disabilities are all well represented. KAMPI does not consider age in recruiting, although the majority of its leaders are between 25 and 35 years old. It also does not consider gender, and the gender distribution of KAMPI's leaders is equitable relative to that of other organizations: approximately 30 per cent of KAMPI's 206 chapters are currently led by women. This figure is high compared to similar figures elsewhere in the Asia-Pacific region, possibly making KAMPI one of the more gender-equal organizations of its type in this part of the world. Women leaders with disabilities also hold key positions in KAMPI's national governing board. KAMPI's leadership training programme KAMPI's leadership training programme operates on two levels: local and national. At both levels, the Government often cooperates in putting the programme into place. At the local level, KAMPI's chapter-members start and conduct leadership training seminars designed to fit the needs and limitations of their community. Funding and support for these training seminars usually comes from local government units, in cooperation with national government agencies such as the Department of Social Welfare and Development. These leadership training seminars are held as often as the need arises, and usually run from two to three days. Speakers at these seminars are usually other leaders with disabilities who have significant past experience and success stories, as well as specialists from the Government and private organizations. At the national level, KAMPI conducts leadership training seminars in conjunction with the Department of Social Welfare and Development and the National Council for the Welfare of Disabled Persons. The curriculum of these training programmes includes the following: (a) Values orientation: KAMPI believes in the importance of instilling appropriate values in its leaders. (b) Organizational development: KAMPI trains its leaders to develop solid and well-maintained organizations. The training programmes teach leaders how to install democratic structures, systems and mechanisms in the group, set attainable and sensible goals and objectives, enhance internal relationships within the group and encourage the members to work actively towards the group's objectives. (c) Gender sensitivity: KAMPI ensures that its leaders do not subscribe to gender stereotypes in any of their activities. (d) Critical consciousness raising: KAMPI's leaders must be highly aware of social, political and economic issues in their community, and must be able to critically analyze their community's situation and issues. (e) Advocacy: As representatives of the largest federation of people with disabilities in the Philippines, it is essential that KAMPI's leaders possess the necessary skills to advocate on behalf of its members. (f) Speaking: For its leaders to be more effective, KAMPI tries to make them more articulate so that they can present their ideas in the best way possible. Problems encountered KAMPI has encountered a number of difficulties and problems in trying to train and develop new leaders. One main reason for these problems is the rural location of the majority of KAMPI's membership. In the Philippines, rural people have limited access to education, because most major educational institutions are concentrated in major cities. Thus, people with disabilities, especially those from low-income families, are often poorly educated. This has a negative effect on KAMPI's leadership development programme. Although KAMPI can provide its members with some training for leadership, the majority of them still have a limited grasp of the important concepts and elements in the programme because of their low educational background. In order to remedy this situation, KAMPI has designed its leadership training programme to be as easy to understand as possible, and the speakers at KAMPI's leadership training programmes make it a point to deliver their messages in a language which the grassroots disabled persons can clearly grasp. Unique features of KAMPI's training programme KAMPI's leadership training programme is unique because it is a programme completely of and for people with disabilities, tailored for their particular needs and capabilities. The programme is an initiative of people with disabilities and conducted by them as well, with the help of hired technical staff, government and non-governmental organizations. Future plans for the leadership training programme KAMPI's leadership training programme is continuously evolving. As people with disabilities in the Philippines face a changing social, political and economic situation, the process of developing and training new leaders for KAMPI must continually adapt. The leadership training programme has not reached its final form. The development of the programme is an ongoing process as KAMPI tries to make the system more responsive to the needs of people with disabilities in the Philippines. Contact details: Katipunan ng Maykapansanan sa Philipinas, Inc (KAMPI) Old Administrative Bldg, Quezon Memorial Circle, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines Tel/fax: (63-2) 929-4409 V. APPROACHES AND ACTIVITIES Although many self-help organizations focus their activities on advocacy and awareness-raising, there is a trend among them toward providing support services for their members, for the following reasons: (a) There are not enough services to enable people with disabilities to participate actively in community activities; (b) Existing services, in many cases, do not meet the actual needs of people with disabilities; (c) Organizations recognize the capability and resourcefulness of disabled people as service providers and their aspirations for meaningful participation in community life. Traditional service-delivery disability organizations are usually run by people without disabilities. Such organizations tend to consider people with disabilities as passive beneficiaries, rather than giving them a chance to participate in organization decision-making. Increasingly, people with disabilities are challenging those traditional organizations to include people with disabilities as full members in their decision-making bodies, and thereby enhance the relevance of their services to people with disabilities. At the same time, organizations run by people with disabilities can provide direct support services that are unique and cannot be provided by the traditional service-delivery organizations; e.g., peer support services. In this connection, a good balance is required between advocacy and service delivery. Without support services, people with disabilities may not survive or be able to leave their homes. But if organizations' advocacy work is weak, it is difficult for them to improve the overall situation of people with disabilities. This section will introduce examples of various approaches and activities. Strong management skills and discipline will be required to implement them, as the more service programmes a self-help organization is involved in, the more it will need administrative efficiency. A. Approaches to rural people with disabilities Many self-help organizations are based in urban areas and neglect the needs of disabled people in the rural areas. They tend to focus on accessibility, independent living and other issues that most concern urban disabled people, especially those who are educated and have more access to resources. However, there are many people with disabilities, particularly in the rural areas, who do not have basic services, cannot afford the necessary assistive devices (such as wheelchairs and hearing aids) and are confined indoors for their entire lives. Therefore, there is a strong need for the development of new approaches by self-help organizations to meet the needs of rural disabled people. Those new approaches require an extensive management review of current priorities, including collaboration with communities, NGOs in social mobilization and government agencies. Case study 5: Sanghams of village people with disabilities13 Background: Poverty and disability Poverty is the root cause of disability in developing countries. Ninety per cent of people with disabilities in those countries are poor. Malnutrition, unclean drinking water and lack of immunization all contribute to preventable disabling conditions. Structural-adjustment programmes of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund have exacerbated these difficulties, by requiring the reduction of public expenditure and removal of subsidies. The former has made health care less accessible to the poor, and the latter contributes to malnutrition by increasing the price of essential commodities such as lentils (often the only source of protein for poor people) beyond their reach. The rationale for this approach is that wealth will be generated which will then "trickle down" to the poor, but there has not yet been a case in point to validate that argument. Water is scarce in many rural areas of India. In many places, women must walk miles to obtain it. Some believe that poor people do not understand the need to boil water for drinking. More commonly, however, poor families simply do not have more than two pots for cooking, let alone for storing, and fuel for cooking is not easy to come by. They are therefore unable to boil water to make it safe to drink. Casual enquiries of many poor people show that they do not understand the value of immunization, because it has not been explained to them in a manner that they can understand. Those that do recognize its importance have often found attempts to get children immunized to be in vain; on the day they went to a clinic, the health worker did not show up or no vaccine was available. They cannot go again and again because most of them are daily wage labourers. Unfortunately, when poor countries typically spend more than three times as much on the defence as on health and education combined, this situation is unlikely to improve. The census is an internationally accepted method to collect data. Yet in many poor countries, people with disabilities are excluded from the census as a matter of course. When they are not even counted in the statistics, planning for their inclusion in national development programmes at best is a token. Still, their numbers are great by any count. Conservative estimates state that 3 per cent of the world's population has disabilities; even if this figure is accepted (the World Health Organization estimates 7 per cent), it means that China has more than 30 million people with disabilities û more than the entire population of Australia. This many people deserve political clout and adequate provision in national plans. The problem is that many people with disabilities have not organized to bring about change. Those who work with people with disabilities in poor communities have often heard them say "They call me lame because I am lame". Further reflection shows these responses indicate apathy, not acceptance of the situation. A deeper enquiry shows this apathy to be rooted in the human deprivation faced by disabled people. They are typically either neglected or over-protected, denying them opportunities for early childhood stimulation, play, companionship, education and gainful employment, let alone marriage. While the physical and security needs of disabled children and adults are met in some measure, their needs for love, belonging, self-esteem, recognition and self-actualization are not. The lives of people with disabilities are given little value, as they have few opportunities either to be economically productive or to fulfill social functions û even though the material possibility exists for most of them to be as productive and functional as any other member of society. Self-help organizations Over the last decade, national-level organizations of people with disabilities have emerged in developing countries. Disabled Peoples' International has given impetus to this development. This is undoubtably a positive step towards promoting independence and self-advocacy. However, the leadership of these organizations usually represents only a small minority of people with disabilities: those who have had access to education and good economic opportunities. They are largely from urban or semi-urban areas and the middle classes. While the value of these leaders' contribution is certainly significant, the resulting organization structure and ethos do not provide adequate mechanisms for a large portion of organization membership to participate in self-advocacy. Although the organizations are democratic and have mechanisms for participation in elections, a large proportion of their members do not know why they are members and what they are entitled to. As a result, many do not pay their subscription or membership fees. In the extreme case, such national associations can themselves become elitist, promoting the needs of only a select few of their constituency. National self-help organizations in many countries are based on single disabilities. It is common for these organizations to compete with each other for resources which are already scarce, and are often made more scarce by new government economic policies. People with disabilities are dispersed throughout each country. The number of people with disabilities in any one community may be very small, with each of these people having a different disability. Seven people has been found to be an optimal number to form an organization of people with disabilities. When one can find seven people with disabilities in a community, it is unlikely that they will all have the same disability. Therefore, it is probably best to encourage people with all kinds of disabilities in any given community to come together and form a joint organization, to increase their collective strength and protect their rights. Their eventual presence in a national organization will ensure the representation of poor people with disabilities. An NGO called Action on Disability and Development (ADD) was set up in the UK in 1985 to support people with disabilities to form their own organizations and to combat poverty. An indigenous NGO by the same name was set up in 1987 in India. Both organizations believe that only people with disabilities can bring about fundamental change in their own situation; no one else can do it for them. Therefore, both organizations promote self-help groups of disabled people in poor communities (known as sanghams in India), helping them to identify their own needs, assist them to prioritize and take action. The sangham approach "Sangham" means "association" in Indian language. As an association, a sangham has goals, rules and regulations. The goals include individual and group goals, which are set up cooperatively, not competitively. ADD and ADD India have reached about 1,400 villages including about 5,000 men, women and children with every kind of disability. The sanghams they form are all cross-disability organizations, which is important because the issues of poverty and changing attitudes are common to all disability groups, and because the power of the poor is in their numbers. If disabled groups are divided by disability category, they will become weaker. Sanghams practice shared leadership, in which problems are put forth to all members so that they can participate in solving them. They discuss problems until they reach a consensus among themselves for solutions. This is opposed to consultative leadership, in which a leader consults with other members but makes the final decisions himself or herself. A sangham includes between 7 and 20 people with disabilities, a size that allows for shared leadership and meaningful participation. The group elects a president, secretary and treasurer, but members take turn to be office-bearers. One of them must be a woman. The sangham meets twice a month to discuss various matters, including education for children with disabilities, assistive devices, income generation, property, marriage, sexual abuse, drinking water and health. If necessary, they will meet with representatives of the local authorities for improvement of their situation. Many sanghams undertake savings as an activity. Each member puts a small amount of savings into common coffers. Members can borrow with interest from this fund, either for emergency use or for capital for income generation. Sanghams are also active in village immunization campaigns; sangham members go to see families in the village to motivate them to have their children immunized. Sanghams also deal with larger issues. Many sanghams join with other groups, such as women's and youth groups, in undertaking campaigns to address community needs such as drinking water, roads, or better health service delivery. Some sanghams have joined land struggles with other groups of poor people. By so doing, they begin to fulfill a social function in the community and get identity and recognition. The sangham movement reached a milestone when 78 disabled people contested the panchayati raj (village local authority) elections in Andhra Pradesh and 31 of them won. They contested with a union of agricultural labourers promoted by Young Indian Project, an NGO. The union's membership consists of various sections of the poor, artisans, women, and people with disabilities. While each of these groups has its own self-help group at the village level, their representatives merge into a union at the district level. These unions now have a membership of more than 250,000 people, including people with disabilities. In total, the Union contested 7,000 seats, of which it won 5,000. ADD India's other partners are also encouraging self-help groups of people with and without disabilities to make linkages for common and disability-specific struggles. People with disabilities are represented in the gram sabhas (village committee). People with disabilities are now running in local authority elections in programme areas influenced by ADD India. Representatives of self-help groups of people with disabilities met on Human Rights Day in 1996. This is a fore-runner to disabled people forming their own federation to represent and protect the interests of poor rural people with disabilities. Encouraging linkages with other oppressed groups, at both the local and national levels, is the only way to get meaningful representation of poor people with disabilities in the decision-making of national disabled people's organizations and of the Government. ADD has established a training programme for NGO personnel interested in helping with the formation of village sanghams. For more details, see Annex III. Impact In the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu in southern India, mainstream rural-development NGOs are encouraging about 5,000 people with different disabilities to organize themselves into about 380 self-help groups. The role of ADD India has been to influence them to undertake this work and to provide support for policy formulation, programme design, training, networking and follow-up. ADD India works in partnership with these NGOs over a period of two years, and takes on new NGOs thereafter. In the last ten years, ADD India has been able to influence about 22 NGOs to help organize people with disabilities. The NGOs find the funding for the work. ADD India has been one of the agencies instrumental in influencing the Ministry of Rural Development to allocate funds for organizing disabled people in rural areas. The experience in Bangladesh and Cambodia The situation in Bangladesh is very similar to that in India. The ADD programme in Bangladesh has adopted the Indian model of directly working with disabled people and also influencing mainstream rural-development NGOs to undertake organizational work of disabled people. In Cambodia, ADD works directly with disabled people in two communities. Cambodian society is fragmented in the post-Khmer Rouge era. Enabling communities to address their health problems, and thus creating an environment of caring for each other, including disabled people, has laid a strong foundation for ADD's work. A similar process of caring and sharing among people with disabilities has enhanced their human development enough that they can reach out to the community. A main activity of the self-help organizations is thrift saving. In one of the communities, drinking water is scarce. An international NGO digs wells for communities, provided the community bears a certain portion of the cost. The self-help group in one of these villages contacted the International NGO and learned about this scheme. Then they approached the village chief to get the community contribution; they found out that he did not have any community money with him, but that he could raise it given some time. The self-help group gave him all its savings as an advance to the community. This is just one example of how much disabled people care for and share with one another and their community. Difficulties encountered The first problem encountered in the sangham movement is enabling people with disabilities to believe that they can do things for themselves and for others. Communities often do not see the value of organizational work and political education. They discourage disabled people from attending meetings, and sometimes even abuse development workers. Influencing NGOs is easier said than done, as they often see disability as a non-issue. Even after they begin work for disabled people, it takes a long time before that work takes its rightful priority. The important issue is to get disability onto the development agenda of NGOs and Governments. Once this is done, it will have its own momentum and dynamics to reach its rightful place, as has happened with women's issues. The next ten years Sanghams of people with disabilities will stay and the number of sanghams will grow. However, it is not certain what kind of ideology the movement will adopt. Many hope that it will adopt the view of disability as a poverty and human-rights issue. The more federations of sanghams are formed and the stronger the linkage between the sanghams and other disadvantaged groups become, the greater the impact that the sanghams will make on the lives of rural disabled persons û not only in south India, but in other parts of the world. However, cautions have to be taken when the sangham movement is to spread elsewhere. People often pay more attention to inputs and outputs than to the process of development work. The sangham work is process. It takes time and a certain methodology to produce good results. Unless people recognize this and take the time to learn and applying it, it will only produce mediocre work. Contact details: Mr. B. Venkatesh c/o Centre for Education and Documentation No.7, III Phase Domlur II Stage, Bangalore 560071 India Tel (res.): +91-80-545-1152 (For message): +91-80-5543397 Fax: (91-80) 5580357 Att: CED for Venkatesh E-mail: venky@ilban.ernet.in B. Independent-living programmes for people with extensive disabilities Independent-living programmes in North America made it possible for persons with extensive disabilities to live independently in the community. That movement, in turn, had made great impact on the Japanese disability movement. Japanese disabled persons, inspired by North American independent living principles, adapted independent-living programmes to Japanese culture. Recently, independent-living centres in Japan have become a visible force in influencing municipal and central government policies and programmes concerning persons with disabilities. Case study 6: Independent-living centres in Japan14 The independent-living movement in the United States The disability movement in the United States was strongly influenced by the American civil-rights movement, especially the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In 1972 Ed Roberts, a polio survivor who used a wheelchair equipped with a respirator, was about to graduate from the University of California at Berkeley. He had managed life at university by obtaining assistants for personal care and other necessary services in an accessible residence at the university hospital. However, these services were no longer available as soon as he graduated. Discussing their future, Roberts and his friends with disabilities decided to establish an independent-living (IL) centre in the community with the cooperation of their families and friends. The independent-living movement grew out of this first centre.15 Basic concepts of the IL movement The founders of the IL movement proposed the following four key concepts as part of it: (a) People with disabilities should live in their own communities; (b) People with disabilities are neither patients to be cared for, children to be protected, nor gods to be worshiped; (c) People with disabilities themselves can identify what assistance is necessary and manage it; (d) People with disabilities are the victims of social prejudice, not of disabilities. In the traditional medical model, people with disabilities were treated as defective models who were expected to reach the level of people without disabilities. Rehabilitation forced people with disabilities to get dressed by themselves without any assistance, no matter how much time it took. The IL philosophy, on the other hand, suggested that asking for help was not a shame and that it would not harm the self-reliance of people with disabilities. It regarded people making their own choices and decisions as the most important thing. Rehabilitation should be limited to the medical treatment required for a certain period of time, rather than controlling the entire lives of people with disabilities. History of IL Centres in Japan In Japan in the 1960s, the Blue Grass Movement (of people with cerebral palsy) centered on a struggle against discrimination. The movement insisted that disability was "one of the attributes of a person"; its philosophy was close to that of the IL movement. Ed Roberts introduced the IL movement itself to Japan in 1981, the International Year of Disabled Persons. Judy Heumann and other disability activists also soon toured through Japan to elaborate the IL philosophy. These lectures generated enthusiasm everywhere they occurred. The main focus of the talks was on the philosophy, rather than the services, of IL centres.16 The first IL centre in Japan, the Human Care Association, was established in Hachioji, Tokyo in June 1986, through activities of the Wakakoma Center in Hachioji city. Established 20 years ago, the Wakakoma Center was a day-activity centre managed by and for people with extensive disabilities. It later gave way to the First Wakakoma Center, the Second Wakakoma Center, and the Mokuba Workshop. These were created according to the specific needs and activities of people with disabilities in Hachioji: day-activity centres for young people with extensive disabilities, day-care centres for people with multiple disabilities and sheltered workshops. As the number of people requesting personal assistance service at these centres increased, it became difficult to find assistants on an individual basis. This need led to the idea of establishing an organization to provide dispatch services for personal assistance. The purpose of IL centres in Japan People receiving the services of the Human Care Association have many different types of disabilities. One of the Association's objectives is to be a core force for social change beyond the IL movement. The Japanese disability movement has so far been divided by type of disability, and clustered into local community groups or small circles. The Human Care Association, on the other hand, is a self-help organization of qualified individuals with different types of disabilities in different areas. The Japanese disability movement previously focused on protesting, demanding and advocating. People with disabilities had not aimed to provide services by and for themselves. The formation of the Association helped make society realize that people with disabilities could do so. People with extensive disabilities are often put in the custody of their parents at home and their teachers at school17, leading them to be dependent and lack basic living skills such as time management or even self-expression. Aiming to remedy such a situation, the IL centre in Japan emphasizes two major programmes: the provision of personal-assistance services and the organization of independent living skill training programmes. Programmes of the Association As a model for IL centres in Japan, the Human Care Association established a principle that IL skill training and personal-assistance services were essential. Many founding members of the Association had been involved in managing the Wakakoma Center, one of the two disability activist groups in the 1970s, and were therefore aware of the situation and basic needs of people with extensive disabilities. Many of them had been home-bound or institutionalized since early days of their life and had had little social experience. If IL centres provided only personal-assistance services, their users might become dependent on the assistants and continue living alone without knowing the importance of making choices and decisions of their own. On the other hand, if the centres only organized IL skill training with no personal-assistance services, users might acquire the IL skills and philosophy without seeing any changes result in their lives. a. IL skill training The IL skill training programme was started at the Wakakoma Center. People with disabilities attending the programme had to learn how to build human relationship, how to solve own problems and claims, how to manage their money and other practical skills for IL, after previously being stuck at home or in institutions. Peer counselors, who have disabilities and are already living independent lives, lead the programmes and give support to participants. Each programme consists of 12 regular sessions, one session per week, with an average of six to eight people with disabilities participating in each session. The programme teaches the following skills and topics:18 (a) Goal setting; (b) Identity establishment; (c) Health and medical care; (d) Communication with attendants; (e) Human relationships; (f) Management of money; (g) Management of time; (h) Shopping, meal planning and cooking; (i) Sexuality; (j) Utilization of social resources. In each session, the peer counselor acts as programme leader, using such methods as group discussion, role-playing, and field trips. The association formulated IL skill-training modules and field-tested them for three years with the people with disabilities in Wakakoma Center and other self-help organizations. The modules were accepted and published as a textbook entitled Manual for Independent Living Program in 1989. This programme is now adopted by other local IL centres in Japan. People in the United States have experimented with various types of IL skill training. The programme in Japan is different from these because of cultural differences. For example, it was difficult to show the importance of assertiveness to Japanese people with disabilities, a problem shared in other East Asian countries. As a result, the Japanese IL skill-training programme has proved useful in those countries.19 In 1994, the Association published the English version of the Independent Living Skill Training Manual and organized the First Asia-Pacific IL Workshop in the Philippines, with the Stockholm Cooperative for Independent Living. It has also trained the Thai and Filipino participants of the annual IL Study Program in Japan, jointly organized by the Catholic Association of Disabled Persons and the Asia Disability Institute since 1992. It is preparing to organize a workshop on IL in Seoul, Republic of Korea in 1998, including the translation of the manual into Korean. b. Peer counselling The acquisition of IL skills for people with disabilities is a difficult task and takes time. They are typically used to people saying "You cannot do anything because you are disabled", "Never hope to get married" or "Don't go out because you are a shame to the family" since their childhood. This discouragement damages their confidence and dignity, making counselling a necessity for their self-esteem. Counsellors should also have disabilities, and should treat service users as equals û as peers, not clients. The term "peer" was introduced to counselling in the 1970s by Alcoholics Anonymous in the United States. People with disabilities in Japan refer to their counselling as peer counselling. The term emphasizes the equal relationship between counsellors and service users. IL centres in the United States also provide the same type of counseling programme. In 1988 the first intensive course for peer counsellors was organized. Now, the counsellors have themselves become leaders of the IL movement throughout Japan. The term "peer counselor" spread among mass media and social services. The National Government has adopted the concept of peer counselling in programmes for people with developmental disabilities, and more recently for people with locomotor disabilities. c. Personal-assistance service The personal-assistance service helps people with disabilities live independently by giving referrals and sending personal assistants to those who need help with daily activities such as moving into and out of bed, taking a bath, going to the toilet, cooking and cleaning. The service is performed based on user needs. People with any sort of disabilities are welcome to use it (including older people, pregnant women, or people with temporary disabilities such as broken bones). The service is provided on a commercial basis. Users pay personal assistants a fare between 1,000 and 1,200 yen (US$ 8-9) per hour. This indicates that users are to be treated as employers; when the Government provided these services free of charge, volunteers serving as caregivers often acted like superiors of the people they were supposed to be helping. The personal assistants can work at any time. The policy specifies that the hours of service provision are generally from 7 am to 11 pm, but people who face difficulty at night or early in the morning may use personal-assistance services at any time. 50 per cent of the 400 registered personal assistants are homemakers; 30 per cent are students; and 20 per cent are freelance workers and/or retired people. Most commonly, students work at night, retired people in the early morning, and homemakers in the day time. When a user requests personal-assistance service, the coordinator of an IL centre makes a home visit to interview that user about his or her specific needs. The coordinator also gives the user information on community resources, including public home-helper services, housing referrals and modifications, and available self-help tools and devices, so that the user can make the best use of social resources to achieve IL. Then, the centre selects and refers a personal assistant who can best meet the need of the user. The personal-assistance service is based on the rights of the user as a consumer. Therefore, before making contract with their personal assistants, users may turn down personal assistants they find unacceptable up to three times. If a user wants to go out on an extremely cold day, an assistant has no right to stop this decision and should support it; the responsibility is the user's. Freedom and responsibility are the bases of IL. The Japan Council of Independent Living Centers (JIL) Since 1989, new IL centres have been established across Japan. The majority of them are modelled on the Human Care Association; some of those who started these centres worked or were trained at the Association. The basic programmes are available at the IL centres of Machida Human Network, Hands Setagaya, and CIL Tachikawa. Other organizations such as Sapporo Ichigokai, AJU Independent House and Shizuoka IL Center of Disabled Persons, share similar services and programmes. In order to share skills and information, twelve IL centres around the country agreed to form the Japan Council of Independent Living Centers (JIL). They established it on 22 November 1991 after the preparatory meeting for establishment late in 1990. The agreement of JIL, which mostly follows that of the American National Council of Independent Living, specifies the following: (a) 51 per cent of the board members should be people with disabilities; (b) A person responsible for managment should have a disability; (c) IL centres should provide their services to people with any kind of disabilities; (d) In addition to the two basic services of information referral and human-rights advocacy, centres should provide the following servics; (i) IL programmes; (ii) peer counselling; (iii) personal-assistance services; (iv) housing referral and modification. IL centres are admitted as members if they provide at least two of the aforementioned four services; if they provide one, they are designated as associate members. Groups and/or organizations that intend to start services and become IL centres later are appointed as future members. JIL has sub-committees on the following four topics: (a) IL programs and peer counselling; (b) policy making; (c) management of IL centres and other services; (d) disability rights advocacy. A seminar for the presidents and/or directors of IL centres is held annually, in order to develop their management skills. A peer counsellor training programme and IL skill trainer programme are also organized every year in various parts of Japan. In 1997, 74 IL centres in Japan are registered as members of JIL. Approximately ten IL centres are newly established every year. Future plan for IL centres IL centres in Japan have developed for eleven years. As organizations providing services to, by and for people with disabilities, IL centres have become more widely accepted among communities and governments. Most of the officials in national and local governments now know what IL centres are. Last year, six IL centres were selected to operate the Community Service for Persons with Disabilities in Municipalities, one of the major programmes that the Governmental Plan for Persons with Disabilities initiated in 1996. JIL is working to increase that number. Since the IL concept is very different from the traditional institutional approach, existing institutions will likely begin to change as IL centres develop and provide community services. Staff who try to meet service users' needs at nursing homes or disabled people's institutions are likely to find the philosophy and services of IL more suitable. The most important objective of IL centres now is to convert institutional social welfare services to services based on users' needs. Present public services are limited to people aged 65 or over, or people whose disabilities are classified in six grades according to their severity. This current situation results in segregation and overprotection, while need-based social services enable people with disabilities to have what they want without any hesitation. These are the services that IL centres should provide. The next objective is to make the national Government legislate the system of IL centres, reforming the Japanese system for social foundation itself in order to realize this objective. An organization needs the Government's authorization to get government grants and funds regularly. It is, however, currently a complicated and difficult process for a foundation to get the authorization. As a result, Parliament has been discussing the enactment of a new law for non-profit organizations. It is important for IL centres to become more efficient and supportive. JIL and its regional bodies, such as TIL (the Tokyo Council on Independent Living Centers), are responsible for enforcing this objective. Note that the IL approach does not deny the importance of rehabilitation specialists or their specialties at all. Rather, IL centres expect that professionals are of great help in giving the highest priority to the needs of people with disabilities. Contact details: Mr. Shoji Nakanishi Director Human Care Association Part 1-1F, 4-1-14 Myojin-cho, Hachioji City, Tokyo, 192 Japan Tel: (81-426)46-4877 Fax: (81-426)46-4876 E-mail: YHY02306@niftyserve.or.jp C. Cooperation between self-help organizations in developed and developing countries There are various ways to enhance collaboration between organizations of people with disabilities in developed and developing countries. The following are two of many such examples. Regional networking in wheelchair production was initiated in 1991 as a used-wheelchair recycling programme for Thailand by Asahi Shimbum Newspaper Social Welfare Organization and self-help organizations of people with disabilities in Japan and Thailand. It has expanded its scope and geographical area. It now includes training of technicians in the production of wheelchairs using locally available materials. There is scope for Disabled Peoples' International (DPI) Asia-Pacific Regional Council to build on this initiative and serve as a focal point for a wheelchair production network, involving DPI members. A Thailand World Deaf Leadership (WDL) project will be a joint endeavour of the National Association of the Deaf in Thailand (NADT), Ratchasuda College and Gallaudet University. The Project not only provides the training necessary for NADT members to become professional teachers of Thai Sign Language, it also provides deaf people with university credentials that certify them and them alone as the official teachers of Thai Sign Language. Also, built into the training program is a curriculum and materials development component that assures that NADT will have access and control over Thai Sign Language teaching materials. Furthermore, by hiring Deaf graduates of the program to teach Thai Sign Language at Ratchasuda College, NADT is assured input into and quality control over programs related to Thai Sign Language at Ratchasuda College. Such input and quality control is available to no other national association of deaf people in the Asia-Pacific region at present. Case study 7: The Campaign to Send Wheelchairs to Asian Disabled Persons In 1992, eleven Japanese organizations of people with disabilities, along with the Asahi Shimbun (newspaper) Social Welfare Organization, collaborated with organizations of people with disabilities in Asian developing countries to initiate the Campaign to Send Wheelchairs to Asian Disabled Persons. Each Japanese organization collected used wheelchairs and refurbished them, then dispatched them overseas. So far, the campaign has dispatched 630 wheelchairs to organizations run by and for people with disabilities in Bangladesh, the Philippines and Thailand. The recipient organizations have then distributed the donated wheelchairs to people with disabilities based on a careful evaluation of their economic condition and aspirations for work and independence. Most wheelchairs made in Thailand have been heavy (about 30 kg) and built for use in a hospital or other institution. These heavy wheelchairs have prevented many Thais with disabilities from participating in activities outside institutions. The Japanese wheelchairs, by contrast, are made from stainless steel or aluminum alloy, and are thus lightweight, foldable and compact. Although previously used, they have become popular among people with disabilities who want to be more independent. The project also started to train technicians with disabilities in wheelchair repair so that the donated wheelchairs can be repaired in Thailand when broken, rather than being sent back to Japan. In the early stage of the project, two Thais with disabilities were sent to be trained for one month in Japan. Five more training workshops were organized later in Thailand, along with one in Bangladesh and one in the Philippines, with Japanese disabled instructors dispatched to conduct training. In January and February 1997, 23 people with disabilities participated in a ten-day training workshop organized in Thailand. Two of these people came from Bangladesh, two from the Lao People's Democratic Republic, two from the Philippines and 14 from Thailand. Participants in the workshop learned how to produce wheelchairs as well as repair them, and all took home wheelchairs they had designed. According to Topong Kulkanchit, past President of the Association of the Physically Handicapped of Thailand (APHT), which hosted the Thai training workshops: "A wheelchair is the essential mobility device for people with mobility impairments. Without it, disabled people cannot achieve full participation in the community. Wheelchair production also can be a good income generating activity for disabled persons, and could be their steady occupation. We would like to share with other Asian friends the knowledge and experience that Thai disabled persons have gained through this project." In Thailand, the APHT Wheelchair Workshop was established in 1993; it now employs seven male workers with disabilities and their wives. It produces average 30 light-weight wheelchairs per month, including sports wheelchairs. In the Philippines, the wheelchair production facility in Tahanang Walang Hagdanan (House with No Steps) has improved its production capacity because of the support from this project. After the last workshop in Bacolod city, organized under the project, the Bacolod Association of Disabled Persons plans to establish a wheelchair production factory with support from the Bacolod city government. Contact details: Ashahi Shimbun Social Welfare Organization Ashahi Shimbun Newspaper Osaka Headquarters 2-banch, 1-chome, Nakajima, Kita-ku, Osaka City 530-11 Japan Fax: (81-6) 231-3004 Association of the Physically Handicapped of Thailand 73/7-8 Soi Tivanond 8, Tivanond Road, Taladkwan, Muan, Nonthaburi 11000 Thailand Tel: (66-2) 951-0567 Fax: (662) 951-0569 Case study 8: A university-level Thai Sign Language certificate programme20 In the 1991 publication Self-Help Organizations of Disabled Persons (United Nations publication ST/ESCAP/1087), The National Association of the Deaf in Thailand (NADT) listed two short-term goals related to Thai Sign Language: more sign-language courses for hearing people, and a Thai Sign Language interpreter training programme. These goals are easy to understand, but less easy to achieve. Reaching the goals requires highly technical academic expertise in such areas as sign-language linguistics, second-language acquisition, second-language teaching methodology, curriculum development, materials development, theories of translation and interpretation, and methods of evaluating translation and interpretation. While most NADT members are fluent users of Thai Sign Language, only a handful have had access to university education; no deaf person in Thailand has received formal university-level training in sign language linguistics and/or sign language teaching. So, on its own, NADT did not have and could not acquire the necessary academic knowledge and technical skills to teach Thai Sign Language professionally or to train professional Thai Sign Language interpreters. NADT decided to form a partnership with the institutions that could provide it with the skills it needed: Gallaudet University and Ratchasuda College. Gallaudet University, established in 1864 by an act of the United States Congress with the approval of American President Abraham Lincoln, is the world's first liberal-arts university for deaf people. It has the world's largest library on deafness and considerable expertise in the theory of sign-language teaching and interpretation. Ratchasuda College was established in 1992, as the result of many years of discussion and planning by HRH Princess Sirindhorn and the formulation of a new law in Thailand to aid people with disabilities. It is the first and only institution in Southeast Asia dedicated to providing tertiary education to deaf people, blind people, and people with locomotor disabilities. In 1996, Ratchasuda hired a foreign sign-language linguist and a foreign deaf-studies ethnographer, to begin systematic research on Thai Sign Language grammar and on deaf culture in Thai society. Since 1996, the sign-language linguist and the ethnographer have been collaborating on research projects on an informal basis with NADT. NADT formalized its partnership with Gallaudet and Ratchasuda in 1997, with an agreement to collaborate on a project known as the Thailand World Deaf Leadership (WDL) project. The collaboration with Gallaudet will ensure the Thai institutions' access to foreign expertise; the collaboration with Ratchasuda will ensure long-term sustainability and acceptability of the programme in Thailand. The Thailand WDL project has three major objectives related to sign language teaching, each discussed in turn in this paper: (a) Establishment of a university-level programme to train deaf people as professional teachers of Thai Sign Language; (b) Development of a standard curriculum for teaching Thai Sign Language and of teaching materials for courses in Thai Sign Language; (c) Establishment of university-level courses in Thai Sign Language that will be taught by graduates of the training programme. Objective 1. Establishment of a university-level programme to train deaf people as professional teachers of Thai Sign Language. The establishment of a university-level programme to train professional Thai Sign Language teachers should accomplish several goals. First, it should provide deaf people with the expertise to teach Thai Sign Language effectively and help train future interpreters. Second, it should provide deaf Thai Sign Language teachers with university credentials, so that Thai society will recognize their qualifications. Third, it should ensure that deaf people can control the teaching of their own language. Finally, it can expand educational and employment opportunities for deaf people in Thailand by focusing on issues that are of importance to the Thai deaf community. In the context of the NADT-Gallaudet-Ratchasuda WDL program, the completion of Objective 1 will result in at least seven deaf graduates (members of NADT) per year who have been professionally trained and certified as teachers of Thai Sign Language. To accomplish this objective, NADT needed to work with Gallaudet and Ratchasuda to complete four steps, labelled here as 1a) through 1d). 1a) Designing a series of courses that form a cohesive programme. Very few Thai deaf people have had any college experience, Ratchasuda does not currently have enough faculty who know Thai Sign Language to teach undergraduate general-education courses, and Thailand has no professionally trained sign-language interpreters to interpret general-education courses. For these reasons, NADT, Gallaudet and Ratchasuda agreed to start the training programme as an undergraduate certificate programme, which will eventually be transformed into a B.A. degree programme. (A similar approach was used successfully in the early stages of nursing education for hearing people in Thailand.) NADT, Gallaudet, and Ratchasuda decided to use the core requirements for the B.A. degree in sign language teaching at Gallaudet as a model for the requirements of the undergraduate certificate programme in Thai Sign Language teaching methodology at Ratchasuda. See Annex IV for a description of the courses available in the programme. 1b) Proposal of the training programme to the Royal Thai Government for recognition. NADT and Ratchasuda are preparing a formal proposal, according to officially recommended guidelines, that will allow programme graduates to be appointed as teachers of Thai Sign Language (as a second language) in the Royal Thai Government Civil Service System. They have contacted the appropriate Royal Thai Government offices for approval. Since all graduates of the programme will be deaf, deaf people will be the official teachers of Thai Sign Language in Thailand. This fact ensures that deaf people in Thailand can keep control over their own language and programmes related to it. 1c) Selection of Thai deaf people who will study in the programme. The selection procedures agreed upon by NADT, Gallaudet, and Ratchasuda ensure maximum input from deaf members of NADT. Potential students for this programme must be all of the following: (a) at least 18 years old; (b) deaf; (c) a member of, or willing to become a member of, the National Association of the Deaf in Thailand; (d) highly fluent (with native or native-like proficiency) in Thai Sign Language; (e) extensively knowledgeable about, and participating in, a deaf community in Thailand; (f) committed demonstrably to a career in sign language teaching and/or research. In addition to these six requirements, a student must have completed a certain level of education to become a civil servant in the Royal Thai Government. Normally, the minimum education levels are M-6 (completion of secondary school) for people 18 to 25 years of age and M-3 (completion of 3 years past primary school) for people over the age of 25. Students who do not meet the educational requirement can still study in the programme for employment as teachers of Thai Sign Language outside the Royal Thai Civil Service System. Under a special initiative from the Royal Thai Government and Ratchasuda College, students entering the programme with less than an M-6 education will be given the opportunity to complete M-6 through supplemental special education classes at Ratchasuda while they are studying for the certificate programme. However, students in the certificate programme will not be forced to complete M-6 before or during their studies for the certificate. Potential students for this programme will be located through NADT, the four regional associations of deaf people in Thailand, schools for deaf people, and other organizations, institutions, and individuals working with deaf people in Thailand. Applicants to the programme must perform the following: (a) complete an application form (including three letters of recommendation); (b) prepare a written or videotaped statement of why they wish to enter the programme and what they plan to do upon its completion; (c) pass a Thai Sign Language proficiency examination jointly administered by Ratchasuda faculty and NADT; (d) be accepted for admission by an ad hoc Admissions Committee at Ratchasuda, at least half of whose members must be deaf. From seven to ten students will be accepted each year, and between five and seven of these will likely receive full financial support for the duration of the certificate programme. At least one stipend per year will be reserved for female students. All other fellowships will be open equally to men and women. (The Canadian International Development Agency's Women's Initiative Fund in Thailand has agree to support fellowships for two Deaf women for the first class of students.) 1d) Selection of faculty members at Gallaudet to teach courses. The first semester of the Thai academic year overlaps with summer vacation in the United States academic year (May-August). Each year during a portion of this period, Gallaudet University will send deaf university lecturers or professors of sign language instruction, and a sign language interpreter for the deaf instructors, to Ratchasuda College. They will collaborate with Ratchasuda faculty in teaching courses on the theory and methods of sign-language instruction, and in supervising practicum courses. Gallaudet will recommend faculty members, although the final selection of visiting faculty members will be made jointly by Ratchasuda and NADT. Gallaudet faculty will teach general information about theory and methods, and Ratchasuda faculty will relate this material to Thai Sign Language. Ratchasuda faculty, in consultation with NADT, will develop and teach courses related to the structure of Thai Sign Language, instead of existing Gallaudet courses in the structure of American Sign Language. Objective 2. Development of a standard curriculum for teaching Thai Sign Language and of teaching materials for courses in Thai Sign Language. The development of a standard curriculum and teaching materials should accomplish three goals. First, it should provide teachers of Thai Sign Language with a high-quality curriculum and high-quality teaching materials. Second, it should provide NADT members with the skills necessary to continue developing Thai Sign Language teaching materials that NADT can market. Third, it should ensure that NADT will have extensive input into the development of curriculum and teaching materials for Thai Sign Language. The completion of Objective 2 will result in a standard curriculum for a three-to-four-year teaching programme in Thai Sign Language, with a textbook and videotaped materials for each of three university courses in Thai Sign Language, one each at an introductory, intermediate and advanced level. To accomplish Objective 2, Gallaudet and Ratchasuda faculty will work with NADT in three ways, labelled 2a), 2b), and 2c). 2a) Teaching theory and practicum courses in curriculum and materials development. Students in the certificate programme are required to take one theory course and two practicum courses in curriculum and materials development related to sign language teaching. The theory course will teach students about the theory of curriculum and materials development, about previously developed curricula for teaching various sign languages, and about previously developed textbooks and other materials for teaching various sign languages. In the practicum courses, students will work with faculty on applying this theoretical knowledge to developing a standard curriculum and textbooks for a university-level Thai Sign Language programme. This two-to-four-year programme will teach Thai Sign Language as a second language at the university level. 2b) Conducting and supervising research on the development of a standard curriculum, textbooks and other materials In addition to the certificate program's courses in curriculum development, Gallaudet and Ratchasuda faculty will collaborate on externally funded research projects to develop a standard curriculum and textbooks for a university-level Thai Sign Language second-language programme. Students and graduates of the programme will be employed as research assistants and/or associates in these research projects. 2c) Producing written and videotaped versions of the curriculum, textbooks, and supplementary teaching materials. At the end of each year, the latest version of the curriculum, textbooks, and other teaching materials will be written in Thai and English, and will also be videotaped in Thai Sign Language for distribution in Thailand and in other countries. Objective 3. Establishment of university-level courses in Thai Sign Language that will be taught by graduates of the training programme. Objective 3 is to produce three university courses in Thai Sign Language, one at each of the introductory, intermediate and advanced levels. Ratchasuda College will hire graduates of the programme to teach these courses for university credit. NADT will also hire graduates of the programme, to staff its own sign language teaching programme. To accomplish Objective 3, NADT will collaborate with faculty from Gallaudet and Ratchasuda to do the following: (a) examine the existing bibliographies and syllabi for American Sign Language courses already offered in the United States and for courses on other sign languages already offered in other countries; (b) synthesize the information from these existing bibliographies and syllabi into a bibliography and syllabus appropriate for Thailand; (c) add information obtained from the research in Thailand on Thai Sign Language to this proposed bibliography and syllabus; (d) have graduates from the certificate programme teach and test experimental versions of the course at Ratchasuda and NADT. Features necessary for sign-language teacher training programmes Not only does the project provide the training necessary for NADT members to become professional teachers of Thai Sign Language, it also provides deaf people with university credentials that certify them and them alone as the official teachers of Thai Sign Language. Also, built into the training programme is a curriculum and materials development component that assures NADT will have access to and control over Thai Sign Language teaching materials. Finally, by hiring graduates of the programme to teach at Ratchasuda, NADT is assured input into and quality control over the College's Thai Sign Language programs. No other national association of deaf people in the Asia-Pacific region has such input and quality control at present. For these reasons, other national associations of deaf people may wish to emulate aspects of the Thailand WDL project in their own countries. Should they wish to develop similar sign-language teacher training programmes, they must consider three factors, each discussed below: (a) the preparatory sign-language research required as a foundation; (b) the planning necessary to start such a programme; (c) the human, managerial, and financial resources necessary to ensure the programme's success. Preparatory sign language research Three basic types of formal linguistic research must be undertaken before a sign language teacher training programme can be attempted. The first type of research is a language survey to determine how many sign languages exist in the country, and how closely these languages are related. This type of survey should be carried out by a trained sign-language linguist working in cooperation with a national association of deaf people, or with local associations of deaf people if there is no national association. A typical sign-language survey might take from three months to a year to complete. Results will vary from country to country; for example, recent research shows that deaf people under the age of 50 in urban areas of Thailand use only one sign language, while, in urban areas of Viet Nam, they use at least three closely related sign languages, and perhaps more. Because of such differences, sign-language research and sign-language teacher training programmes must be developed on a country-by-country basis, tailored to fit the local situation. In the second type of research, a trained sign-language linguist works with a national association or local associations of deaf people to create dictionaries for each of the country's sign languages. A team of five to ten deaf people working with an outside sign-language linguist and a local linguist can often finish a sign-language dictionary in one or two years. The outside sign- language linguist normally needs to be present for at least two to three months a year for such a project. After the dictionary work is well underway, the third type of research can begin: a reference grammar of the sign language(s). Writing a reference grammar is a highly technical project, but is essential for teaching. No one can learn a language from a dictionary alone; one must have information on structuring words or signs into sentences. A team of the size mentioned for the dictionary can probably complete a reference grammar in two to three years, with the outside sign-language linguist present for four to six months a year. Fortunately, NADT had previously worked with other organizations on preparatory sign language research, and therefore had the critical linguistic resources necessary for the teacher training project: a linguistically adequate dictionary of Thai Sign Language and an ongoing cooperative research project on the grammar of Thai Sign Language with a sign-language linguist. Planning Careful planning is necessary to establish a sign-language teacher training programme. The first step is to locate potential partners for the project: people who know about deaf people, sign language research and sign language teaching, and who are willing to work with associations of deaf people in the region where those associations are located. NADT selected Gallaudet because of its long-standing reputation as a university for deaf people and its relatively large number of deaf professors with M.A. and Ph.D. degrees. These professors can serve as teachers as well as academic role models for Thai deaf people who want to become teachers of Thai Sign Language. NADT selected Ratchasuda because it was dedicated to providing university education to deaf people in Asia (especially South-East Asia), was located in Thailand and could offer credentials that would be accepted in Thailand, and already had an informal working relationship with NADT in the sign-language research programme. The second step in the planning process is to contact the potential partner organization(s) and set up a site visit of partner-organization representatives. In May 1997, NADT invited representatives from Gallaudet and Ratchasuda for a three-week site visit, during which it held daily activities related to the project. By the end of the site visit, NADT and representatives of Gallaudet and Ratchasuda had agreed on the objectives, a work plan and schedule for accomplishing the objectives, an estimation of costs necessary to complete the project, and possible sources of outside funding After the site visit was completed, NADT stayed in contact with the partner organizations and helped in writing a proposal. Since NADT and its partners approved the proposal, NADT has worked with Gallaudet and Ratchasuda to find the human, managerial, and financial resources necessary to ensure the success of the sign language teacher training project. Human, managerial, and financial resources NADT needed to have the following human resources available within its own organization for the project: (a) Thai Sign Language-(spoken) Thai interpreter(s) for 24 to 40 hours a week; (b) deaf staff member(s) to work for 8 to 16 hours a week on community education, outreach, and publicity related to the project; (c) staff member(s) who know Thai, Thai Sign Language and some English for 32 to 40 hours a week to work as liaisons with Gallaudet and Ratchasuda on project administration, scheduling, correspondence, etc.; (d) at least seven deaf adult members of NADT each year who can study full-time for 18 months for the certificate (total of at least 35 Deaf people over five years); (e) an accountant who can write financial reports for the grant; (f) an overall administrator for the project. It also needed to have contact with other organizations who could provide the following available outside resources for the project: (a) foreign deaf professors of Sign Language Teaching Methodology (NADT obtained them from Gallaudet); (b) foreign spoken-to-sign-language interpreters for the foreign professors (Gallaudet); (c) a Thai-English spoken language interpreter (Ratchasuda); (d) an expert sign-language linguist (Ratchasuda); (e) a local linguist interested in learning about sign-language linguistics (Ratchasuda); (f) Thai notetakers (Ratchasuda); (g) a video documenter to record the lectures and practicum courses for future use (Ratchasuda). To obtain the necessary managerial skills, NADT has had to do the following: (a) organize local travel and accommodations for Gallaudet faculty who came on the site visit; (b) organize local and regional meetings for Gallaudet faculty to meet with deaf people throughout Thailand; (c) help set academic and funding priorities for the project; (d) assist in forming a Thai Sign Language evaluation committee for the project; (e) assist in forming a committee to screen applications for admission into the teacher training programme; (f) assist in forming an advisory committee with Ratchasuda faculty and representatives from Thai schools and government agencies; (g) arrange all publicity and outreach for this programme in the Thai deaf community; (h) decide on a budget for NADT expenses for the project; (i) manage the budget for the project in a separate financial account and make budget reports to organizations contributing money. NADT has also had to work with Gallaudet and Ratchasuda to locate the financial resources needed for this project. The estimated costs for this project are from US$ 40,000 to 50,000 for each year, with about half of this money paying the expense of bringing Gallaudet faculty to teach in Thailand and paying three sets of interpreters (American Sign Language-English, English-spoken Thai, and Thai-Thai Sign Language). Fortunately, most of the project money for the first four years will come from the Nippon World Deaf Leadership Programme, established in 1997 by a grant from the Nippon Foundation to Gallaudet University. Additional temporary funding for expenses related to Thai deaf people will come from the Women's Initiative Fund in the Canadian International Development Agency in Thailand, from the Japanese Federation of the Deaf, and from the Ratchasuda Foundation in Thailand. After 5 years, the project must become self-sufficient, and NADT and Ratchasuda College are already working together to arrange the Thai funding to maintain this project after international funding has expired. This programme has profound implications for the empowerment of deaf people in the Asia-Pacific region. It could serve as a model programme for other associations of deaf people in the region. For more information about developing sign language teacher training projects, contact the National Association of the Deaf in Thailand, the Deaf Studies Programme at Ratchasuda College, or the World Deaf Leadership Programme at Gallaudet University. For information about sign-language linguists working in the region served by ESCAP, please write to the Deaf Studies Programme at Ratchasuda College. See also Annex IV. Courses for the NADT Thai Sign Language programme. Contact addresses: National Association of the Deaf in Thailand 144/9 Moo Ban Thitiporn, Pattanakarn Road, Suan Luang, Bangkok 10250 Thailand Tel: (66-2) 717-1902 and 1903 Fax: (66-2) 717-1904 Deaf Studies Programme Ratchasuda College Mahidol University at Salaya 35/111-115 Puttamonthol 4th Avenue Salaya, Nakornprathom 73270 Thailand D. New types of training and job placement New types of vocational training/new areas of employment opportunities for people with disabilities are currently being sought by self-help organizations of people with disabilities. Training in computer and related fields is a successful means of expanding employment opportunities for people with disabilities in Thailand. In rural India, horticulture has opened up employment as well as self-employment opportunities for people with disabilities. Those two programmes are run by people with disabilities with full support from a church (Pattaya, Thailand) and a local community (Bangalore, India). Case study 9: The Redemptorist Vocational Training School, Pattaya, Thailand Background In 1984, the Redemptorists, a religious group working for disadvantaged groups of people, began a small vocational school for young adults with disabilities, with one teacher and 12 students. It now accepts up to 180 students a year. The school believes that people with disabilities can support themselves if they have the right training, and that given a chance, they would try harder than people without disabilities. In 1989, it developed a fully comprehensive curriculum that provided students with a range of learning options in the fields of computer operations and computer programming. At the same time, it initiated courses in electronics and electronic repairs. The severe shortage of skilled people in this field virtually guaranteed graduates a job; every student graduating from this school has a job on graduation day. The school is now seen as a model vocational school for Thai people with disabilities. The school is divided into three departments: the Electronics/Hardware Repair Department, the Computer Science Department and the English Department. In the Electronics/Hardware Repair Department, there are two courses: general electronics, for radios, VCRs and televisions; and computer hardware repair, including repair of computers, monitors and printers. Each lasts one year. The Computer Science Department also teaches two courses: business software operator and computer programming. In the business software operator course, students study software packages such as spreadsheets, databases, word processing and graphic design; this takes one year. The programming course takes two years. All students are required to take English classes. Among 20 teachers of the school, 19 are disabled; they were selected from former graduates of the school. They have proved excellent role models for the students. Thailand's rapid economic development has led to a shortage of high-technology workers. This shortage is especially acute in the fields of computer software, electronics maintenance and hardware repair. This backdrop, combined with the high reputation for technical excellent earned by the school, has led to the employment of all the graduates. Over the last ten years, the school has produced over 800 graduates. The school has a list of multinational and major national companies in Thailand wanting to employ its graduates. Some of the graduates are very well integrated into society, with their own children and managerial positions in companies. This success of the School has had a great impact on changing attitudes towards people with disabilities in Thailand. Strength of the school: management by people with disabilities The school is an organization supported by the Redemptorists, but it is managed by people with disabilities. All but one of the teachers have a disability, which has a positive impact on students as they prove good role models for what students can accomplish. Teachers know that people with disabilities can accomplish whatever they put their minds into. The teachers demand that students make intense efforts to learn the occupation that will support them for the rest of their life. Student who do not try their best receive warnings; if these go unheeded, they can be expelled. Although strict, the teachers also provide helpful advice, as they have a deep understanding of the students' physical and psychological problems. Another strength of the school is the hard work of both students and teachers. When students are accepted to the school, they are told that the school's duty is to give them a good education, but also that their duty is to study hard. Knowing that an opportunity like this is unlikely to come again, students come with a determination to succeed. Their disability gives them an extra edge and added incentive to pursue their studies. Classrooms are seldom empty even on weekends and free days. Computers are rarely free as students try to perfect their skills. The school imposes very strict rules. For example, the students cannot go out after six o'clock in the evening, and they have to get up very early. This encourages to devote their time in the school to study. The students are also encouraged to take part in many activities, including sports and community activities. Difficulties faced by the school One difficulty is the differences in students' levels of education. Many have a very low level. Even those students with a school certificate, especially from upcountry Thailand, may not have knowledge at the level stated on the certificate. This makes teaching very difficult. Such students are put into an appropriate class that builds their knowledge and academic skills up to an acceptable level. The teachers have to work harder, and senior students must attend extra classes in Saturday evenings. Students need to learn new skills that are required in the ever-changing job-market. The school needs substantial funding to increase its capacity to train students in these areas, such as video production, designing and high technology. At the moment, the school lacks such funds. Women's enrollment in the school There are more men than women enrolled at the school. In the 1997 semester there were 32 women enrolled; in the 1996 semester, 40 women. Women with disabilities face a difficult situation in Thailand. They are accorded a lower status than men with disabilities. Their education level is often poor, which makes it difficult for them to pass the entrance exam. The school has a programme to encourage women to enroll in the school, providing extra classes to bring them up to the appropriate educational level. Financial resources of the school Most of the students come from families that cannot afford to pay tuition, so the school charges no tuition or boarding fee. It is supported entirely by donations, which affects the number of students that can be accepted each year; the average cost of educating one student for one year is 50,000 baht (about US$ 1,000). The school raises funds for various projects. For example, to purchase computers and musical instruments, as well as to build a basketball court, the school submits project proposals to various organizations, parliament members, NGOs and private companies. It also raises funds through providing evening computer classes to people in the local community for a fee, and through an electronics repair shop that charges fees for its services. Job placement and promotion of jobs Two or three months before graduation, job promotion activity begins: sending out hundreds of letters to companies, and contacting radio and television stations to broadcast the school's announcements for prospective employers. The school sends out a package with an application form along with information about students, their background and their skills, so that companies can choose a student whom they think best suits their needs. Interviews are conducted at the school where the students and company representatives can meet. A job-placement assessment is conducted to check if a company environment is accessible. The school tries to put the right person in the right place. Some companies will adjust their work environment to disabled employees. Some even loan money to a graduate for buying a car. The school used to send out letters and make follow-up visits to companies, to solicit their acceptance of the students. Today dispatch of letters is sufficient, because the school receives more job-offers than it has students. Employers are excellent evaluators for vocational training programme. Telecom Asia, one major employer, wrote: "In the past few years, Telecom Asia has had the pleasure of receiving three graduates from the Redemptorist Vocational School. All three are disabled. They are in the position of software programing and office staff. Their disability is no obstacle to their work. They have given their all to their particular job. Their efficiency more than meets the requirements demanded by the head of their department. It seems there is no obstacle they cannot overcome...Because of the excellent vocational training provided at the school, these disabled people are able to go right into the work force after graduation. They will be able to have a sense of security in their lives...The work of developing disabled youths into people useful for society is to be commended. Telecom Asia will continue to give support the disabled in the form of job opportunities. The only requirement is [that] they must meet the standards of our company."21 Attitudes and perceptions of employers and fellow employees The negative attitude and perception of employers and fellow employees can give graduates problems. But problems may also derive from graduates' own insecurities. They often think that when the employer complains about their work, it is because they have a disability, not because of their job was not satisfactory or their lack of skills. Sometimes problems arise due to misunderstandings, competitiveness with other employees or a lack of self-assurance. The school does not often find that the companies have negative attitudes, as they themselves have chosen the graduates. Future plan The school earlier accepted one or two students from other countries, but it was difficult to train foreign students due to the language barrier. The school would like to have an international section, but it is difficult to find teachers that can teach computer skills in English. The school is currently preparing a project proposal to establish an international computer training course for people with disabilities from other countries in the Asia-Pacific region. Contact details: Redemptorist Vocational School for Disabled Persons P.O.Box 1, Pattaya City, Chonburi, 10260 Thailand Tel: (66-38) 716-247 or 248 Fax: (66-38) 420-340 E-mail: smongkol@loxinfo.co.th Case study 10: Horticulture as an employment opportunity for people with disabilities22 History of the horticultural programme 75 per cent of the population of India lives in rural areas; most of these people are involved in agriculture. Agriculture and horticulture are therefore among the most important activities through which people with disabilities can achieve independence and a stake in community life. The Association of People with Disability (APD) was known until February 1997 as the Association of the Physically Handicapped (APH). It is based in Bangalore, in the state of Karnataka in southern India. Every APD programme has started small and developed according to the responses of its users. The APD has become a training resource for the area and the region, and now networks with other NGOs. It increasingly emphasizes empowerment and self-development. None of the APD's activities provide lifelong institutional support for people with disabilities. Rather, its interventions are intended to make them self-reliant and build their capacity through good management practices. Hundreds of people with disabilities are registered with the Special Employment Exchanges in Bangalore, but lack skills. They may wait years and still not obtain a job, as a lack of skills compounds the difficulties resulting from prejudice and nonacceptance. In 1985 Ms. Hema, now President of the APD, read a short article in OXFAM News about a horticulture therapy programme in Frome, United Kingdom. This triggered correspondence and interest on the part of APD, although other NGOs and even the horticulture section of the Department of Agriculture were skeptical of the idea of gardening for disabled people. So APD asked a Frome horticulturalist to visit Bangalore, bringing material for a workshop. Many people attended the workshop, including the APD Board, other NGOs and government officials. What they saw there convinced them, making them enthusiastic about horticulture as both therapy and employment for people with disabilities. APD then worked with Lialbagh Botanical Gardens in Bangalore to establish a syllabus for trainers. 21 trainers from the NGO sector attended the six-week course on practice and theory. After this initial effort in 1985, it took two years to mobilize resources and start a modest programme. First the APD approached the Bangalore Development Authority for a civic amenities site, and obtained one acre on an installment-purchase basis. A bore well was dug, and minimal accommodation was made for the first group of six trainees. While negotiations for the land were still underway, the APD began its gardening work in a local halfway home for people with psychological disabilities, carrying tools there in a gunny bag resting on a bicycle. By the time the site was ready for occupation, a new group had been formed in the United Kingdom, called ADD (Action on Disability and Development). Support links between the APD and ADD, already strong, were strengthened by the commissioning of an English consultant to spend six weeks in Bangalore helping design the training syllabus. Working with D.M. Naidu, the trainer in the new programme who is former Director of the APD, and Siddalingaiah, a practical gardener and trainer, the consultant united classical horticultural methods with the particular aspects of gardening in Bangalore to produce a practical, specific syllabus. In September 1987 the project started officially, with its first batch of six trainees and its two staff. All the families of the trainees were seen at home, and the terms and conditions for their children explained. From the beginning, the project had five goals, which remain, although the means of achieving them have been modified and refined over the years. These goals are the following: (a) to provide horticulture training for people with disabilities; (b) to identify suitable employment opportunities for them on completion of the training; (c) to use horticulture as a therapy to foster self-esteem and confidence; (d) to promote horticulture training to many NGOs working with disabled people; (e) to generate enough income to make the training programme self-sufficient. During its nine years of existence, the centre has become self-sufficient. It began with 100 per cent funding from OXFAM, and later SCIAF. This funding slowly became less necessary, and the training is now completely supported by commercial activities; only new capital schemes need initial outside finance. Eligibility and recruitment The program accepts people with any kind of disabilities, although most current participants have locomotor disabilities. Their age ranges from 16-40, and most are from rural areas. No prior qualifications are required. At the moment, all are men, a situation that will be discussed later in this paper. A two-week Bridge Course is part of the recruitment and selection process. This course serves several vital purposes. Most importantly, it allows the APD to assess potential trainees' ability and commitment, and also allows trainees to determine whether they want to continue. The course also gives a broad introduction to horticulture, as a preparation for the future work. It is often participants' first experience of independent living, their first chance to wash, cook and purchase for themselves. Recruitment occurs through three main routes: the Special Employment Exchanges, local-language newspapers, and local radio. These advertise the times and local venues for interviews. Sometimes people are approached directly and followed up. Parents are often involved at this stage. Main features of the programme After the Bridge Course, regular training begins. Theory is matched with practical work, so that trainees learn by doing. The syllabus is currently nine months long, involving six months of training and three months of supervised work experience. Each group of 15 trainees is trained in: (a) plant maintenance; (b) plant propagation; (c) watering; (d) pruning; (e) lawn maintenance; (f) controlling pests and diseases; (g) kitchen gardening; (h) mushroom cultivation; (i) small-scale landscaping. Vermiculture, organic growing, herbs and medicinal plants are all part of the training. There is also work on planning, group activities to develop team spirit and social awareness, and visits to local horticulture shows, to nurseries and to other training units. Perhaps most important is the social life: reading and discussing newspapers, living together, and coming to accept one's disability and recognize that it need not be a handicap. Finally, by finding trainees a three-month work placement, the APD attempts to expose trainees to work culture, with its unavoidably regular hours, unremitting demands and individual responsibility. Where necessary, practical work is modified to suit a trainee's disability; it is acknowledged that not everyone can do everything. For example, Naranayanaswamy (described below) cannot prune anything above ground level, but he is skilled at plant propagation and general maintenance. As well as its core work of training, the APD promotes horticultural work among other NGOs, and runs public courses on practical gardening twice a year to spread its environment-conscious message and raise the profile of disability work in general. In order to generate income, the APD set up a Production Unit separate from the training centre, which employs people with disabilities in providing house and garden plants for sale. In addition, there are commercial ventures such as landscape gardening, decor design and maintenance for business houses and truck sales around Bangalore. These all raise money and keep the public aware of disability-related work. Environmental consciousness combined with regard for beauty won the training centre garden at Jeevan Beem Nagar the 1997 Urban Art Prize for the best designed and maintained garden in Bangalore. This competition was open to all comers, not merely NGOs or disability-related organizations. Jobs available after training Of the 120 trainees who have completed the course since its inception, approximately 70 per cent have gone on to have a career in horticultural activity. Some have become gardeners in nurseries, in industrial houses, with private individuals and in institutions. Some have taken up modest kitchen gardening or growing flowers for cutting; others have become free-lance gardeners, taking on small contracts. Some case histories of job placements i. Rajagopal Rajagopal was trained in 1992, at the age of 23. He has no left hand, and both of his legs are congenitally short and bent. A native of Bangalore, he stayed at school to take his School Leaving Certificate, and then began to look for work. He heard of the horticultural training at APD, applied and was accepted. At first he was apprehensive about handling tools, but gradually became more confident at using them. When his training was completed, he first worked first with a landscapist. After that, he was appointed as horticultural instructor to the Spastics Society of Kamataka in Bangalore, where he now remains, earning Rs 1,100 (about US$ 30) per month and looking to the future with confidence. ii. Subramanyam Born in a village near Mysore, Karnataka with severe congenital deformities, Subramanyam was abandoned by his parents and brought up by his grandfather. He stayed in school until Standard 6. After that, he had to beg from bus queues for a living. However, his grandfather heard about the newspaper advertisement for horticultural training, and Subramanyam was accepted for the 1991-2 batch. He learned well and quickly, and was taken on as an employee of the APD for 18 months. He then progressed to gardening for a local doctor. The doctor gave Subramanyam ample scope to develop the doctor's large garden, gave him an assistant and eventually bought 5 acres of land for growing cut flowers, which Subramanyam managed. This also provided employment for other people with disabilities. He has now moved on again, working for the corporate sector in garden development. He is married with a son, happy and doing well. iii. Naranayanaswamy Naranayanaswamy did his training in 1996. His legs are unusable, doubled up beneath him. However, he moves around swiftly on crutches, and now works permanently as a gardener at the APD main campus. He is cheerful and positive, augmenting his income with gardening for local people in the evenings and at weekends. He has obtained a hand-powered tricycle, which allows him to go further afield. iv. Aslumpasha Born in a village 100 km from Bangalore, from a large family of farming labourers, Aslumpasha fell from a tree at age eight and injured his hand. He did not receive treatment outside the village, and lost movement in that hand. His prospects looked grim. However, through the Special Employment Exchange he joined the programme, and was an able and quick student. Once he had successfully completed the training, he found contracts to work in apartment buildings, earning about Rs 2000 (US$ 53) a month. He then went to Dubai on a 7-month contract and earned enough to buy two acres of land on his return. Now he looks forward to establishing a profitable gardening operation. Main strengths and weaknesses of the programme The main strengths of the APD horticultural programme are the following: (a) It trains people with disabilities who might otherwise have no hope of employment; (b) It answers a growing need, as horticulture is a booming industry in Bangalore and demand for gardeners currently exceeds supply; (c) The program can sell produce to the public in general and deal with the corporate sector; (d) There are two dedicated permanent staff: Ganeshe Hedge, a highly trained horticulturalist, and the original practical gardener, Siddalingaiah. The program's main weaknesses are the following: (a) It displaces out-of-town trainees from their own environment, disrupting their natural community; (b) There is a drop-out rate of 30 per cent, perhaps because the course cannot always combat years of inactivity and dependence; (c) Expectations may be too high, as trainees may refuse jobs other than the highly desired government jobs that offer total job security, an assured pension, retirement benefits, easy hours, and the chance to earn money outside of working hours; (d) Women do not yet receive training, as it is easier to deal with young men with the minimal facilities available for residence; (e) The APD has limited experience with marketing; (f) The training is too highly structured for a participant to join in mid-course (a modular style of training is still not established, although it has been prepared); (g) Managerial skills in the unit do not yet balance training, business and promotion. (h) It is difficult for trainees to return on time from visits to families at festival times, especially as many of them have 12-hour bus rides there and back; (i) Trainees from the country want jobs that also provide accommodation, which is rarely available; (j) Young people from rural areas are often not used to systematic routines. People were somewhat less likely to refuse low-paid, hard jobs when trainers meet the parents of drop-outs and motivate them, and bring in successful ex-trainees as role models. Future prospects There is tremendous scope for horticulture in Bangalore in the future. The city is growing exponentially, businesses to enhance their images, and environmental consciousness is developing. Landscaping is ever more popular, with the need for gardeners growing as a result. There is considerable scope for freelance gardening and entrepreneurship. Small, even tiny plots of land can grow medicinal and culinary herbs. Small cooperatives, along the lines of APD's Home Based programme, can offer mutual support and profit. The APD plans to expand the programme to a new 5-acre site, so that it can offer training to more people and set up a strong resource base for other NGOs. It hopes to offer training to women once residential accommodation is completed. It also hopes to develop courses in flower arranging. Contact details: Association of People with Disability 6th Cross, Hutchins Road, Hennur Road, (Lingarajapuram), St. Thomas Town Post, Bangalore - 560 084 India Tel: (91-80) 547-5165 Fax: (91-80) 547-0390 E. Development of sports and recreational activities International sports events for people with disabilities have been a major stimulus for national Government to take drastic measures to improve national policies and programmes to develop abilities of people with disabilities. The Tokyo Paralympics in 1964 had a profound impact on many government officials, people working for disabled persons and the general public. They were shocked to note the significant differences, not only in athletic abilities between Western athletes and Japanese disabled athletes, but also in their appearance, self-confidence and their occupations. Most of the Japanese athletes who participated in the Tokyo Paralympics were hospital inmates. In contrast, the Western disabled athletes were living independently in their communities, held occupations and had families of their own. After the Paralympics, the Government of Japan embarked its services and programmes for people with disabilities. Competitive sports are a tool to develop self-confidence and motivation for self-improvement of persons with disabilities. As the same token, organizing sports meets and tournaments will provide self-help organizations of disabled persons opportunities to develop the necessary skills and confidence in influencing national policies and programme in the area of sports. The following case-study describes a new development of self-help organizations of persons with disabilities in the area of sports in Thailand. Case Study 11: Development of Thai disabled athletes through their own initiatives Close cooperation with the Japan Wheelchair Tennis Association (JWTA) introduced people with disabilities in Thailand to wheelchair tennis in the early 1990s. Two players and a coach from Thailand were first invited to participate in the International Wheelchair Tennis Tournament (the largest international wheelchair tournament in Asia) in Iizuka City, Fukuoka, Japan. Although the Thai players lost the first matches, they received much moral support during the games. When they left Japan, they received donated used tennis wheelchairs and several tennis rackets. Since then, Thailand has been invited to the tournament every year. Wheelchair tennis players use a regular tennis court. The only rule different from regular tennis is that wheelchair players are allowed up to two bounces before they hit the ball. With this rule added, wheelchair tennis can be very competitive, and wheelchair players can also enjoy games with standing-up players. The number of wheelchair tennis players quickly increased in Thailand. Shortly after the introduction of wheelchair tennis, players and other interested people got together to form the Wheelchair Tennis Club of Thailand (WTCT). The WTCT applied for membership in the International Wheelchair Tennis Federation (IWTF), which was granted. In February 1994, the WTCT organized the first Thailand Open International Wheelchair Tennis Tournament in Pattaya, Thailand. It attracted 43 players from Thailand and 27 foreign players from 8 countries. The Thailand Open became an annual event for wheelchair tennis players from inside and outside the country. Three national wheelchair tennis tournaments are now organized every year: the Chiang Mai Open, at Chiang Mai; the South Thailand Tournament, at Surat Thani; and the Bangkok Open, at Bangkok. Each tournament draws over 50 players. These tournaments have been organized by people with disabilities themselves. This is a new phenomenon in Thailand. Until the emergence of wheelchair tennis, almost all sports activities for people with disabilities were organized by schools for disabled people or by government agencies. Disabled athletes also were not represented in the Sports Association for the Disabled of Thailand, the association responsible for the development of disabled athletes in Thailand. When Thai disabled persons decided to organize the Thailand Open International Wheelchair Tennis Tournament, they formed a working committee and recruited well-known figures in Thai sport, as well as supporters for organizations of disabled people, to form an organizing committee. The working committee was further divided into subcommittees to deal with publicity, accommodation, accessible transportation between airport and hotel, tournament management, and the opening and closing ceremonies. The members of the working committee were all volunteers. Through organizing tournaments, working committee members gained valuable skills and developed their confidence in organizing complex events. With this confidence they started to venture into activities related to other sports. In 1995, the WTCT accepted to host a wheelchair basketball training programme with the Japan Wheelchair Basketball Association. Together they organized a two-day training programme in which the Japanese team trained over 60 people with disabilities from across Thailand. This was followed by several training programmes jointly organized by Thai people with disabilities and the Japanese association. The seventh FESPIC Games in Bangkok The first Far East and South Pacific Sports Games for the Disabled (abbreviated to FESPIC Games) were organized in 1975 in Beppu City, Oita, Japan. Thailand has won the right to host the seventh FESPIC Games in January 1999. 3,000 disabled persons and officials, from more than 42 countries of the Asian and Pacific region, are expected to participate in the Games. Proposed sports programmes for the seventh Games include archery, athletics, badminton, Boccia, fencing, football, goalball, judo, shooting, sitting volleyball, swimming, table tennis, wheelchair basketball, wheelchair tennis and weightlifting. When the organizing committee of the seventh FESPIC Games was first formed, no persons with disabilities were appointed as members. With the persistent advocacy work of national self-help organizations, a number of disabled people were eventually appointed to the committee. Furthermore, they were able to build up their strength to influence the decision-making as well as operation of the Sports Association for the Disabled of Thailand, which is vigorously conducting training programmes for Thai disabled people in various sports events. At the same time, self-help organizations have launched campaigns to promote accessible sports facilities as well as accessible public building, external environments and public transportation systems. In summary, the seventh FESPIC Games will provide Thai disabled persons with an excellent opportunity to demonstrate their skills and ability, and to change attitudes of Thai society toward them as equal partners. Through the organization of sports activities, self-help organizations of people with disabilities can develop their skills and knowledge to participate in the decision-making processes for national policies and programmes. Contact details: FESPIC Federation Secretariat Office c/o Sun Industry Kamegawa, Beppu City Oita, 874-01 Japan Fax: (81-977) 67-0453 F. Developing a network of self-help organizations through the Internet Electronic communications infrastructure is developing rapidly in the ESCAP region. Computers are becoming more affordable by and accessible for many people, including people with disabilities. With appropriate training, computers immensely benefit people with disabilities in the areas of communication, daily living and employment. In this connection, access to and the appropriate use of information is a key to the integration of people with disabilities into the mainstream society. Harnessing information technology can expand increasingly the horizons of people with disabilities. With such trends, disability may no longer be handicapping. 1. Rapid expansion of the Internet The Internet is an amalgam of many different, independent networks, and it is rapidly growing. "Nobody can say precisely how many people are using the Internet today, but there are estimated to be more than three million host computers with as many as 30 million users around the world. The number of users is growing by 15 percent per month. Today 78 countries have full Internet access connections, and 146 countries can exchange e-mail, every 30 minutes, a new network signs on to the Internet."23 The Internet allows use of many tools, the most popular of which are e-mail and the World Wide Web (or "the Web"). E-mail is the main method of communication on the Internet. It allows messages or files to be sent to the accounts (addresses) of other people. These people can be on the same machine (server) as the sender or on machines across the world. A sender needs to know the exact address of a message recipient. E-mail provide a fast and reliable way to communicate. It is superior to telephone or fax in terms of cost, accuracy and convenience. The cost of e-mail messages is the same regardless of the distance messages travel. The World-Wide Web is a vast collection of interconnected documents (hypertext), spanning the world. The advantages of hypertext is that in hypertext document, if one wants more information about a particular subject mentioned, one can select it to read in further detail. Today, there are many web sites in the Internet providing information on various topics, including disability-related issues. Through "search engines", one can find a vast amount of information which can be easily down-loaded onto one's computer. The Internet can provide excellent opportunities for people with disabilities to communicate with others and collect information at their fingertips which is otherwise not easily available. To ensure that disabled people benefit, web sites need to be fully accessible by people with disabilities, in particular visually disabled people who cannot see graphics. As most of them have low incomes, disabled people should be provided with some types of subsidies for purchasing computer hardware and software, charge of Internet service and the cost of telephone calls. They should also receive adequate training on use of computer, and the use of e-mail and "surfing" the Internet. The Governments in the ESCAP region are recommended to make appropriate use of the Internet for the dissemination and retrieval of data concerning disability.24 The establishment of communication networks through the Internet among self-help organizations of people with disabilities in the ESCAP region may be soon a reality, as many organizations have already obtained computers, modems and telephone lines in their offices. They should advocate full access to the Internet by people with disabilities through ensuring accessible web sites by persons with various disabilities as well as guaranteeing their members' access to computer equipment and Internet services. 2. Telework Teleworking is working at a distance from one's employer, either home, on the road, or at a locally based centre. Teleworkers use computers, telephones and faxes to keep in contact with one's employers or customers.25 Because of the recent rapid technological development, teleworking has become reality in many developed countries. It will soon be introduced to the developing countries of the ESCAP region. In order to ride on this trend, disabled people should be given priority in receiving training and be involved in teleworking communication centers, if such scheme is planned. Teleworking can be ideal solution for those with difficulties in commuting to a work place. There are advantages for people with disabilities or for those with domestic or other commitments such as young children. Advantages include the following: (a) freedom from the problems and costs of commuting; (b) flexibility of working hours; (c) ability to fulfill domestic responsibilities. Disadvantages include the following: (a) funds required to purchase equipment and suitable work area free from family interference; (b) isolation from other workers; (c) ability required to organize work well and maintain strict schedules.26 Teleworking is obviously not for all disabled persons. However, it will open up employment opportunities for qualified disabled persons. G. Training in self-advocacy and empowerment Advocacy for people with disabilities works to enhance, through collective action, their opportunities and decrease barriers in society. Thus, advocacy is an important activity of a self-help organization. However, many members have never had opportunities to voice their needs and to express how they should be met, due to lack of self-confidence, basic knowledge and skills to do advocacy. To be good advocates, members of self-help organizations need opportunities to learn to be assertive and to improve their skills in expressing themselves. 1. Definition of advocacy Some definitions of advocacy are as follows:27 "Advocacy is a tool based on organized efforts and actions that uses the instruments of democracy to strengthen democratic processes. Such tools include election related work, lobbying, mass mobilization, forms of civil disobedience, negotiations and bargaining and court actions. These are meant to be illustrative actions. Advocacy should be open to invent other formal and informal actions. These actions are designed to persuade and influence those who hold governmental, political and economic power so that they will formulate, adopt and implement public policy in ways that benefit, strengthen and improve the lives of those with less conventional political power and fewer economic resources..." (Advocacy Institute, Washington, USA) "Policy advocacy is a planned, organized and continued endeavour to influence policy decisions at various levels and their implementation for eradicating poverty, eliminating gender discrimination, establishing social justice and human rights, strengthening democratic process and promoting an environment- friendly sustainable development." (Proshika, Bangladesh) 2. Why self-advocacy? People with disabilities are the poorest of the poor in many societies, and disability issues receive the least priority. This situation needs to be corrected. When advocacy is discussed among persons with disabilities, it is self-advocacy, advocacy by and for persons with disabilities. Self-advocacy is based on the notion that those who know best the needs of disabled people are disabled people themselves. Disabled people daily experience discrimination and prejudice because of their disability. For self-advocates, these become their source of energy for social change. "The contemporary role of persons with disabilities in advocacy and consumer involvement continues to develop toward self-direction, self-determination, and self-assertion of their special interests, citizenship and rights."28 Thus, key words for self-advocacy are "self-direction", "self-determination", "self-assertion", "citizenship", "rights", and "social change as the goal". For people with disabilities, being a self-advocate means the following: (a) To make decisions and solve problems on their own; (b) To speak assertively for themselves; (c) To know their rights and responsibilities as citizens; (d) To make contribution to their community.29 Being a self-advocate is a process of empowerment. Through this process, people with disabilities can become self-determined, assertive, and contributing members of society. In this process, assertiveness is an important factor. Disabled people tend to respond in non-assertive or aggressive manner because they are generally expected to behave in such a manner. Thus, they should learn how to assert themselves. Assertiveness means to: Stand up for what is best for you; Stand up for your rights; Make sure other people understand what you need and want; Openly and honestly express your opinions and feelings; Respect other people's rights and opinion; Listen to other people. Assertive people feel good, honest and respected, and proud of themselves. Other people will see them as capable, able to make decisions, independent, adult, honest and appropriate. Each individual with disability can be a self-advocate, but if self-advocates work collectively, it can make significant changes in the community. Thus, self-help groups or organizations can play a bigger role in advocating collectively the rights of people with disabilities. The following are advocacy strategies for self-help organizations of disabled persons:30 (a) Help people with disabilities to openly and confidently acknowledge their needs; (b) Teach them how to influence the decision-making process in public and private organizations; (c) Guide them in identifying allies with whom they can make common cause. Acknowledging needs is not easy task. The needs may include curbcuts, ramps, accessible toilets for persons with a mobility impairment, interpreters for deaf people, or readers for blind people. Acknowledging them requires a willingness to stand up and be identified as someone who does have disability and have special needs. This step requires understanding of these needs as rights to live in the community. The second step requires some sense of how the world works, of how public decisions be made, which many disabled people do not yet understand. The third step requires an understanding of how to create coalitions of diverse groups to harness their collective energy. VI. CONCLUSION For the last decade, self-help organizations of people with disabilities have been steadily strengthening their position in national policy making and service provision. However, the majority of self-help organizations are still small and weak at securing resources for their activities, compared to organizations that provide services for people with disabilities. With a view to directing more funding support to self-help organizations, the Seoul Proposals (adopted in September 1997) recommended: "Governments should channel resources, to the extent possible, directly to self-help organizations of people with disabilities to enable them to carry out, on behalf of their national constituencies, programmes aimed at independent living of disabled persons." For a long time, Governments and international funding organizations in Asia and the Pacific have given a low priority to the development of self-help organizations, with little financial or technical support available for them. Given this fact, the above recommendation indicates a new direction in policy. As a result, self-help organizations should be confident in approaching their respective Governments, as well as national and international funding organizations, to receive operational costs and technical support on a long-term basis. Urban elite groups have usually dominated national self-help organizations, resulting in neglect of the needs of rural people with disabilities. This is unacceptable if a "national" self-help organization is to serve all of its constituents and truly represent a nation. One approach that may help integrate rural people with disabilities is the sangham approach, described above. Assisting rural people with disabilities in organizing themselves will enormously expand the membership of a national self-help organization and increase its influence over national policy formulation and programme implementation for people with disabilities. Furthermore, since poverty is the major cause of disability in the rural areas, self-help organizations must work towards the elimination of poverty. Adoption of these new approaches requires an extensive management review of the current priorities of self-help organizations, including collaboration with communities, NGOs and government agencies. Establishing a new partnership with other social movements would widen the scope of self-help organizations to achieving true integration of people with disabilities in society. People with disabilities and their self-help organizations need to keep up with the development of new information technology, because it can compensate for their limitations and accelerate their integration into society. But if people with disabilities are left out of this development, the gap between them and people without disabilities will be further widened. As the 21st century approaches, self-help organizations of people with disabilities will likely meet challenges by strengthening their management and setting up a new paradigm to meet the needs of all constituents, including the most disadvantaged groups in the rural villages. VII. ANNEXES ANNEX I. GUIDELINES FOR ALL FDPA PERSONNEL AND VOLUNTEERS WHO ATTEND WORKSHOPS SPONSORED BY FDPA OR OUTSIDE DONORS31 General. These guidelines apply to Board of Officers, staff, members and any other volunteers and personnel connected with FDPA who attend sponsored courses, workshops, seminars etc. dealing with disability issues, either in Fiji or abroad, whether funded directly by FDPA or another outside organization. These guidelines also apply to FDPA representatives appointed to other organizations such as DPI, FCOSS, NCD etc. Several times each year personnel connected with FDPA are invited to attend workshops, seminars etc. concerning disability related issues, or to represent FDPA at meetings of other local, regional or international agencies. Too often in the past the only beneficiary of these workshops etc. is the person who is directly involved. This is both selfish and wasteful of resources. It is FDPA's policy that information and advice should be shared, not only with our own members and the disabled community, but also where appropriate with other similar organizations, individuals and Government. One of the functions of FDPA is to educate and inform its members and the general public on disability Issues. In addition FDPA wishes to influence decision makers to be aware of the needs of people with disabilities. For these reasons it is important that FDPA builds up a corporate knowledge of specific disability issues, and shares that information appropriately. These guidelines have been drawn up to assist those attending workshops etc. to ensure that information has been passed on. A check list to help personnel ensure that they have taken the necessary measures is provided at the end of this paper. Guidelines. 1. Pre-departure briefing. Before attending workshops etc. the personnel involved should hold a briefing session with the Chief Executive Officer and the Public Relations Officer. This briefing is a two way process. Firstly, it is to ensure that the person attending the workshop (the participant) is: (a) made fully aware of the standpoint of the Association on the topics under discussion in the workshop; (b) it is an opportunity for the participant to further brief themselves on the topic by seeking information from the CEO or PRO; making use of the library/files etc. Secondly, the briefing is: (a) to inform the PRO of the purpose of the workshop, so that he can include this information in the newsletter. (b) to act as a trigger to the CEO to set up any additional files etc. which may be required as a result of the workshop. 2. Whilst attending the workshop etc. there are four simple guidelines. (a) The participant must at all times behave in a manner which is in the best interests of FDPA, and in accordance with what is expected from someone who is representing a national NGO. (b) The participant must apply themselves diligently to the workshop etc. so that they can derive the best possible benefit from the course, and can consequently share their knowledge with others when they return (c) The participant must keep all relevant handouts, prepared notes and personal notes so that these can be used later. (d) Regardless of who is sponsoring the event, the participant should keep a clear and accurate record of expenditures. 3. De-briefing upon return Upon return from the workshop etc. the participant will hold a debriefing session with the CEO and PRO. Decisions will be taken during the debriefing on how the benefits of the workshop should be distributed and presented. In every case, the participant will be expected to prepare a written report for submission to EXCO/Board of Officers. In every case, the participant will be required to draft a letter of thanks to the sponsors û this is to be sent via the CEO. In every case, the participant should ensure that course notes and materials are properly filed and recorded in the FDPA files or in the FDPA library/resource centre. Where personal notes are in the participants handwriting then these should be tidied up and typed for inclusion in FDPA files etc. In every case, the participant and the PRO will jointly draft a newsletter article (the length and detail of the article will depend on the relevance of the workshop to the general membership). In every case, the CEO will be responsible for recording the event for inclusion in the Presidents quarterly and annual reports to the general membership. Where relevant the participant will: (a) with the PRO, prepare a brochure or handout outlining the key points of the workshop etc. The presentation of the brochure/handout should either clearly offer direct advice, or clearly identify where additional information on the subject can be found. (b) prepare a talk, workshop or course for presentation to the general membership. The talk, workshop or course should be designed so that it is in a presentation package and can be replicated any number of times in the future. (c) attend to follow up work û e.g. information back to the workshop organizers; collection of further information on the topics etc. Course descriptions RSTS 010 Introduction to Sign Languages and Deaf Communities 4 Credits (3 - 2) An introductory survey of some of the major sign languages, sign language families, and Deaf communities around the world. Universal and unique characteristics of these sign languages and Deaf communities will be discussed to give students an appreciation of the complexities involved in studying languages and cultures. Basic facts about these languages and communities will be used to introduce the students to metalinguistic terms in the fields of Linguistics, Anthropology, and Sociology that will be used in other courses in the program. (Only offered in the first semester of the academic year. Normally taken in the first semester of the program.) RSTS 011 Methods of Teaching Sign Languages* 4 Credits (3 - 2) (Gallaudet University SIG 641 Methods of Teaching Sign Communication) A study of various methods of teaching sign languages including grammar-translation, direct method, "audio-lingual" method, cognitive method, total physical response method, among others. Material development and analysis, lesson planning, the writing of course objectives, and evaluation methods will be featured. Students will have extensive practice in tutorials and will be expected to demonstrate various teaching methods in the classroom. Observation of on-going sign language courses will be included wherever possible. (Only offered in the first semester of the academic year. Normally taken in the first semester of the program. Prerequisite: current enrollment in or completion of RSTS 010.) RSTS 012 Curriculum Design and Materials Development for Sign Language Instruction* 4 Credits (3 - 2) A survey of various curricula and materials used in sign language instruction in selected countries. Students will be taught to compare, contrast and to evaluate the information presented and to begin developing and evaluating similar materials for Thai Sign Language. Students will also be expected to present and formally discuss curricula and materials they have developed and to give constructive criticism of others' curricula and materials. (Only offered in the first semester of the academic year. Normally taken in the first semester of the program. Prerequisite: current enrollment in or completion of RSTS 010.) RSTS 020 Introduction to the Structure of Thai Sign Language 4 Credits (3 - 2) An introduction to the "phonology", grammar, and semantics of Thai Sign Language. Information about the historical development of Modern Thai Sign Language and about sociolinguistic variations in Thai Sign Language that are related to region, social class, age and gender will also be included. Some comparisons with the linguistic structure of Thai and with the linguistic structure of other sign languages will be offered. (Only offered in the second semester of the academic year. Normally taken in the second semester of the program. Prerequisite: completion of RSTS 010.) RSTS 021 Practicum: Teaching Thai Sign Language I 4 Credits (1 - 6) (Gallaudet University SIG 612 Practicum.) A beginning supervised practicum in which students will be required to observe, to team-teach, and finally to participate in actual classroom teaching under the supervision of an experienced cooperating teacher. The students will be assigned to an appropriate course level. Wherever possible a period of classroom observation will be offered preceding the student teaching. Feedback forms will be used to keep the student teachers and the practicum coordinator informed of progress throughout the course. The students will be required to attend a one-hour weekly seminar conducted by the practicum coordinator. (Only offered in the second semester of the academic year. Normally taken in the second semester of the program. Prerequisites: completion of or current enrollment in RSTS 010, RSTS 011, and RSTS 020. Permission of the instructor required.) RSTS 022 Practicum: Curriculum Design and Materials Development for Thai Sign Language Instruction I 4 Credits (1 - 6) A beginning practicum based on RSTS 012 in which students will be required to develop their own curriculum and materials for Thai Sign Language under the supervision of an experienced cooperating teacher. The students will be assigned to develop curriculum and materials for the course level they are teaching during their teaching practicum (RSTS 021). The students will be required to attend a one-hour weekly seminar conducted by the practicum coordinator. (Only offered in the second semester of the academic year. Normally taken in the second semester of the program. Prerequisites: completion of or current enrollment in TSL 010, TSL 012, and TSL 020. Permission of the instructor required.) RSRS 030 Research on Sign Languages in Thailand 4 Credits (2 - 4) Supervised research on Modern Thai Sign Language or on another sign language used in Thailand. Students will be required to select two limited topics of study, one for a group project and one for an individual project. The students, in consultation with and under close direction of the supervisor, will design and carry out a simple research project for each of the two research topics and will report their findings in class and in a formal presentation at the annual meeting of the National Association of the Deaf in Thailand. The students will be required to attend two hours formal lecture/training per week in addition to carrying out the research. (Completion of TSL 010 and 020.) RSTS 031 Practicum: Teaching Thai Sign Language II* 4 Credits (1 - 6) (Gallaudet University SIG 612 Practicum.) An intermediate supervised practicum in which students will be required to observe, to team-teach, and finally to participate in actual classroom teaching under the supervision of an experienced cooperating teacher. The students will be assigned to an appropriate course level. Wherever possible a period of classroom observation will be offered preceding the student teaching. Feedback forms will be used to keep the student teachers and the practicum coordinator informed of progress throughout the course. The students will be required to attend a one-hour weekly seminar conducted by the practicum coordinator. (Only offered in the first semester of the academic year. Normally taken in the third semester of the program. Prerequisites: completion of or current enrollment in RSTS 010, RSTS 011, RSTS 020, and RSTS 021. Permission of the instructor required.) RSTS 032 Practicum: Curriculum Design and Materials Development for Thai Sign Language Instruction II* 4 Credits (1 - 6) An intermediate practicum based on RSTS 012 and RSTS 022 in which students will be required to develop their own curriculum and materials for Thai Sign Language under the supervision of an experienced cooperating teacher. The students will be assigned to develop curriculum and materials for the course level they are teaching during their teaching practicum (TSL 031). The students will be required to attend a one-hour weekly seminar conducted by the practicum coordinator. (Only offered in the first semester of the academic year. Normally taken in the third semester of the program. Prerequisites: completion of RSTS 010, RSTS 012, RSTS 020, and RSTS 022. Permission of the instructor required.) RSTS 033 Methods of Evaluating Sign Language Skills* 4 Credits (2 - 4) (Gallaudet University SIG Evaluation and Diagnosis of Sign Language Skills) This course will review the history of methods of evaluating sign language and study procedures used in the various methods. Students will be exposed to and gain insight and experience in conducting both diagnostic testing and proficiency testing of sign language skills. The preparation of diagnostic reports will be stressed and the students will also learn procedures of conducting Sign Language Proficiency Interviews for Thai Sign Language. The first one-third of the course will focus on theoretical aspects of testing and evaluation and the remainder of the course will provide the students an opportunity to conduct mock evaluations and to prepare diagnostic reports. (Only offered in the first semester of the academic year. Normally taken in the third semester of the program. Prerequisites: completion of or current enrollment in RSTS 010, RSTS 011, RSTS 012, RSTS 020, and RSTS 021.) ANNEX V. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION SOURCES A. USEFUL PUBLICATIONS AND DOCUMENTS United Nations: Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities, United Nations, New York, 1993 ESCAP: Self-help Organizations of Disabled Persons (ST/ESCAP/1087), New York, 1991(out of print) Self-help Organizations of Disabled Persons: Reports of Three Pilot National Workshops (ST/ESCAP/1159), New York, 1992 Directory on Self-help Organizations of People with Disabilities (ST/ESCAP/1330), New York, 1993 Hidden Sisters: Women and Girls with Disabilities in the Asian and Pacific Region (ST/ESCAP/1548), New York, 1995 Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons: Mandates for Action (ST/ESCAP/1433), New York 1994, which includes: Agenda for Action for the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons, 1993-2002 Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons: Action Targets and Gender Dimensions (ST/ESCAP/1669), New York, 1996, which includes: Targets and recommendations for implementation of the Agenda for Action for the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons, 1993-2002 Gender Dimension of Implementation of the Agenda for Action for the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons Contact: Social Development Division Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific United Nations Building Rajdamnern Avenue Bangkok 10200 Fax: (66-2) 288-1030 E-mail: takamine.unescap@un.org Disability Awareness in Action (DAA): DAA, Resource Kit No. 1: Media Information No. 2: Consultation and Influence No. 3: Campaigns No. 4: Organization-building No. 5: Fund-raising No. 6: Disabled Women DAA, Newsletter, Monthly Information Kit on the United Nations Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities, Disability Awareness in Action, 1995 Contact: Disabled Awareness in Action 11 Belgrave Road London SWIV IRB United Kingdom Tel: +44 171 834 0477 (voice) Tel: +44 171 821 9812 (text) Fax: +44 171 821 9539 E-mail: 100726.141@compuserve.com Others: Manual on How to Establish and Run an Organization of the Deaf World Federation of the Deaf, by Ruija Moustgaard, Finland, 1994 B. HEAD OFFICES AND REGIONAL OFFICES OF INTERNATIONAL SELF-HELP ORGANIZATIONS AND OTHER RELATED ORGANIZATIONS Disabled Peoples' International (DPI) 101-7 Evergreen, Winipeg, Canada R2L 2T3 Tel: +1 204 287 8010 Fax: +1 204 453 1267 Tex Telephone: +1 204 284 2598 E-mail: DPI@DPE.ORG Asia-Pacific Regional Council, DPI Chairperson's Office 78/2 Tivanond Road, Pakkred Nonthaburi 11120 Thailand Tel: (66-2)583-6583 Fax:(66-2)583-3031 Inclusion international Galeries de la Toison d'Or, 29 Chaussee d'lxelles, #393/32, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium Tel: +32 2 502 77 34 Fax: +32 2 502 28 46 Rehabilitation International 25 East 21 Street, New York, NY 10010, USA Tel: +1 212 420 1500 Text Telephone: +1 212 505 0871 Fax: +1 212 505 0871 Vice President Asia and Pacific Rehabilitation International North Tower, New Pier Takeshiba 1-11-1 Kaigan, Minato-Ku Tokyo 105 Japan World Blind Union c/o CBC ONCE, La Coruna 18, 28020 Madrid, Spain Tel: +34 1 571 36 85 / 1236 Fax: +34 1 571 57 77 Asian Blind Union V-2o/13, Meher Manzil, Nazimabad, Karachi, Pakistan Tel: 661-2391 Fax 778-1898 E-mail: ABU-NABP@CYBER.NET.PK World Federation of the Deaf (WFD) Likantie 4, POBox 65, SF-00401, Helsinki, Finland Tel: +354 0 58031 Fax: +38 0 5803770 Regional Secretariat for Asia and the Pacific, WFD S.K. Building, 130 Yamabuki-cho, Shinjuku-ku Tokyo, Japan Tel: (81-3)3268-8847 Fax: (81-3)3267-3445 World Federation of Psychiatric Users PO Box 46018, Herne Bay, Auckland, New Zealand Tel: +64 9 378 7477 Fax: +64 9 360 2180 C. ASIAN AND PACIFIC REGIONAL OFFICES OF UNITED NATIONS BODIES AND SPECIALIZED AGENCIES Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) United Nations Building, Rajdamnern Avenue Bangkok 10200 Thailand International Labour Organization (ILO) Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific United Nations Building, 10th and 11th Floor P.O.Box 1759 Bangkok 10200 Thailand Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific 39, Maliwan Mansion Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200 Thailand United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific 920 Sukhumvit Road Bangkok 10110 Thailand United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) East Asia and Pacific Regional Office 19 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200 Thailand United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Office of the Regional Representative United Nations Building, 12th Floor Bangkok 10200 Thailand United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific United Nations Building, 10th Floor Bangkok 10200 Thailand Office of United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) United Nations Building, 14th Floor Bangkok 10200 Thailand United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Branch Office for Thailand United Nations Building, 3rd Floor Bangkok 10200 Thailand World Health Organization Regional Office for South-East Asia World Health House Indraprastha Estate Mahatma Gandhi Road New Delhi-110002 India World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific P.O. Box 2932 Manila 1099 Philippines Officer on Special Duty World Health Organization United Nations Building, 15th Floor Bangkok 10200 Thailand CHECKLIST FOR COURSE PARTICIPANTS/FDPA REPS. Title of Event: Enter Dates: tick Location: when Name of participant: done A. PRE-DEPARTURE: 1 Pre-departure briefing of CEO/PRO 2 Self briefing B. WHILST ATTENDING COURSE/MEETING 1 Personal behaviour 2 Diligent application to work 3 Careful collection/recording of course notes 4 Accurate recording of expenditure 5* Making contact/networking with resource persons and other participants C. DE-BRIEFING ON RETURN 1 De-briefing with CEO/PRO to decide how best use can be made of the information 2 Preparation of written report to EXCO/Board 3 Letter of acknowledgment and thanks to sponsors 4 Filing/recording of course notes in FDPA 5 Preparation of newsletter article 6 Inclusion in Presidents report 7 Preparation of brochure/information sheet 8 Preparation of talks, workshops, etc. 9 Carry out any other follow-up work * Item B5 was added by the ESCAP secretariat. ANNEX II. A SIMPLIFIED BOOKKEEPING SYSTEM USED BY THE FDPA FOR ITS NEWLY FORMED RURAL BRANCH OFFICES This system of bookkeeping was designed for use in rural areas and for branch offices, and to suit circumstances where limited financial literacy exists. It is a simple system, based on a single 32-column ledger book, an example of which follows. It records the total liquid assets of the branch: petty cash, postage stamps held, bank savings account and bank current account. It also records an overall balance of the liquid assets. It is not a double-entry bookkeeping system; it relies on the use of red ink for recording expenditures and black ink for recording income. Red and black pens are therefore essential. The system recommends keeping two bank accounts: a deposit/savings account and a current/chequing account. The branch should keep as little as possible in the current account, as it pays no interest. Banks can be instructed to transfer money automatically from the current account into the savings account when the current account reaches a certain level. This ensures that as much as possible is kept in the interest-bearing savings account. At least two authorized signatories must sign every cheque. The Treasurer should always be a signatory, so that he or she will know what money comes into or leaves the branch. Bank statements should be checked against cheque stubs and the ledger in order to ensure that the balance given by the bank agrees with the books of account, and to add any interest into the ledger or deduct any bank fees from the ledger. A SIMPLIFIED BOOKKEEPING SYSTEM Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4 Col 5 Date. Details. Voucher Rec. No:. Chq. No:. Postage. Telephones. Stationery. Travel. 1/1/98 Opening Bal Col 6 Col 7 Col 8 Col 9 Col 10 Col 11 Col 12 Col 13 Electricity. Water. Rent. Audit. Equipment. Accommodation Subsistence Training Col 14 Col 15 Col. 16 Col 17 Col 18 Medical Supplies. Housing Adapt'n Insurance. Hire Charge. Repairs & Maintenance Col 19 Col 20 Col 21 Columns 22 -27 Col 28 Membership Fees Donations. Project Funding Stamps Held 10.00 Col 29 Col 30 Col 31 Col 32 Petty Cash Held Savings Account Current Account. Overall Balance 50.00 500.00 150.00 710.00 Notes: 1. Debit entries are recorded in red ink. Credit entries in black ink. 2. The shaded areas are compulsory headings, other columns may have the budget headings of your organisations choice. 3. Columns 28 thru 31 are balances û fictional opening balances are shown. 4. Column 32 shows the overall balance, i.e. The total of the balances in columns 28 thru 31. 5. The last 3 rows of the page can be used to show: i) Total income for each budget head (black); ii) Total expenditure for each budget head (red); iii) The balance for each budget head (red or black depending whether credit or debit balance). ANNEX III. CURRICULUM FOR TRAINING OF NGO WORKERS The author of case-study 5, who is the founder and past Executive Director of ADD India and his colleagues jointly developed a curriculum for training activists to organize people with different disabilities in poor communities, called Development Training on Disability. This pioneering initiative has enabled more than 150 activists in India, Bangladesh and Cambodia to equip themselves to do organizational work among disabled people. The curriculum should enable its participants to acquire and apply the knowledge and skills they need to do effective development work with disabled people. The training programme examines the following subjects, each of which will be dealt with at length: (a) Socio-political analysis of the country in question; (b) Poverty and disability; (c) Disability as a development issue; (d) Causes of disabilities; (e) Community study; (f) Case study; (g) Self-development; (h) Counselling; (i) Group-work techniques; (j) Problem-solving techniques; (k) Media. In India, the training takes place over a period of 100 days. This includes 70 days of classroom input and 30 days of field work (community study, case work and disability-awareness activities). This has been modified to meet the needs of newer programmes in Bangladesh and Cambodia, in a phased manner. Programme managers in those two countries have assumed responsibility for follow-up and guidance, thus playing the role of a trainer as well. The programme has used the services of different trainers specialized in each topic. It would be advisable to influence other training resources to add disability concerns to their initiatives, thus increasing their training capacity. SOCIO-POLITICAL ANALYSIS Those who are doing development work need to have a deep understanding of the root causes of poverty in their country, locality and of course the world. This subject will enable participants to describe the socio-political, economic and cultural or religious factors contributing to poverty in their country. It examines the following topics: (a) The historical evolution of society, how its class structure has originated and how the surplus has been appropriated by some people, impoverishing others; (b) Productive forces, their relation to the evolution of social structure and superstructure and their fundamental inter-relationship; (c) An analysis of rural society, including an analysis of farm size structure and dynamics; (d) A definition of farm in three dimensions: technology, labour relation and market relation; (e) Farm size analysis leading to a classification of their sizes: small farmers, middle farmers and large farmers; (f) The reasons and process for small farmers' becoming landless; (g) Statistics on landlessness in the country concerned; (h) The push and pull forces that alienate the poor and the rich from the productive use of land; (i) The rate of improvement due to agricultural production becoming less profitable as opposed to the creation of new areas for employment; (j) Tenancy in three dimensions: tenancy, normal tenancy (from large to small), and pure tenancy (i.e., the landless taking tenancy and shared cropping); (k) Large farmers: whether their land control has increased and the reasons for this, along with their attitude towards the use of land and the diversion of surplus to non- agricultural sectors; (l) The increase in the growth of population, and the tradition of property sharing, which together reduce farm size; (m) The disparity between urban and rural economies and intra-rural inequality; (n) Analysis of the impact of poverty-alleviation programmes from the government and non-government sectors (such as microcredit); (o) Alternative rural industrialization land reforms and tenancy rights; (p) Models of development (socialism, technocracy, globalization), and their strengths and weaknesses; (q) The national development plan; (r) Historical materialism, rural society, and rural development approaches and models; (s) Social mobilization of people in three dimensions: for political power, community development and micro-group benefit; (t) The other approaches of Mohandas Gandhi, Paulo Freire and humanism. POVERTY AND DISABILITY Few people know the link between poverty and disability. Poverty deprives people from accessing information and from using the available information effectively. Disability impoverishes people, and poverty is most often the root cause of disability. This subject will enable participants to describe the socio-political, economic, cultural and physical factors contributing to disability. It includes the following topics: (a) Asset holdings; (b) Number of available days of work; (c) Wages; (d) Alternative sources of income; (e) Family size and why it is an asset; (f) Rainfall; (g) Deforestation and its impact; (h) Ecological imbalances; (i) Impact of industrialization, technology and migrant labour on rural occupation; (j) Health and nutrition; (k) Traditional belief and practices in health; (l) The role of traditional healers and traditional birth attendance; (m) Nutrition: the minimum number of calories required for adults and children per day; (n) Water and sanitation; (o) Housing; (p) Communication; (q) Health systems; (r) Educational systems; (s) Political structures; (t) Religious practices; (u) Debt. DISABILITY AS A DEVELOPMENT ISSUE Attitude, not impairments as such, disables people. This subject covers the prerequisites for normal human development, physiological, psychological, intellectual and social. It will enable participants to describe the root causes of disabled people's deprivation and the ways to change attitudes in the community. It includes the following topics: (a) The evolution of value for human beings; (b) The nature of the human psyche for perfection; (c) The phenomenon of "survival of the fittest"; (d) Historical perspectives on disability; (e) The role of religion in disability; (f) The evolution of services for people with disabilities; (g) Perspectives of Government and the non-governmental sectors towards disability; (h) Birth of the disabled people's movement; (i) A world-wide overview of disability. CAUSES OF DISABILITIES These sessions provide information on the scientific causes of different disabilities. These can be disseminated to disabled people and their families, to change their attitude towards disability and take steps for prevention, early intervention and rehabilitation. The discussion will enable participants to explain the causes, prevention and basic intervention measures of major disabilities. It covers the following types of disability: (a) Poliomyelitis; (b) Congenital deformities; (c) Muscular dystrophy; (d) Spinal-cord injury; (e) Paralysis/stroke; (f) Juvenile arthritis; (g) Amputation; (h) Rheumatoid arthritis; (i) Tuberculosis (joint and spine); (j) Leprosy; (k) Visual impairments; (l) Hearing impairments; (m) Intellectual disabilities; (n) Mental illness; (o) Epilepsy; (p) Cerebral palsy. COMMUNITY ANALYSIS This subject includes an in-depth study of the programme area by participants, to illustrate the information on socio-political analysis and the link between poverty and disability. The topic includes some theoretical discussion, but most of the work is done in the field. Participants contact and relate to people on a one-to-one basis and in groups, in villages or slums, to gather data. This work enables participants to describe the factors contributing to poverty in the community, and the linkages between these factors and disability. The participants first contact key people in the community (e.g., village chiefs, religious heads, postal workers, doctors, teachers, health workers, traders), explain the intended work to them, and seek their support. The participants also gather information about the community from these key people, and through them, establish contact with the other people in the community. Participants collect information through both formal and informal channels. The data collected includes, inter alia, male-female ratio, numbers of children, literacy rates, amount of land and other asset holdings, number of days of work available in a year, migrant labour wages, spending patterns, debt, religious practices, health problems, beliefs and practices, communication systems, and political structure. Participants gather this information over a period of time. After every visit, they discuss the data with facilitators and analyze it. Then, participants disseminate information to people, especially on health problems in the community. They also organize referral. This section includes the following topics of discussion: (a) Definition of community; (b) Elements that make up a community; (c) Power structures in the community and the inter-relationship among them; (d) Resources and their use in the community. CASE STUDY The case study method has been used effectively in working with poor people for more than four decades. It enables participants to gain an in-depth understanding of the situation of individual disabled people. Experience shows that the way two people, with the same disability and in the same community, feel about themselves is usually different, because their emotional, intellectual, social and physical circumstances will be different. The steps for medical and other intervention may also be different. Therefore, if participants are to address the root causes of problems faced by people with disabilities, they need to understand every disabled person individually in order to know the root causes of each person's problems, emotional state and supportive or hostile forces in the family. The root causes are addressed through counselling, referral, intervention and social adjustments in the family and in the community. Understanding this subject will enable participants to describe the importance and the process of a case study, and to carry one out. The discussion includes the following topics: (a) Introduction to social work; (b) The case study as a social-work approach; (c) Principles of case studies; (d) Understanding human behaviour; (e) Case-study recording (narrative summary and verbatim); (f) Tools and techniques for case studies; (g) Counselling versus case study. SELF-DEVELOPMENT Unless one can change oneself, one cannot change others. This subject sensitizes participants to self-development, enabling them to examine whether and how they want to develop themselves. They will also be able to define self-development and its pre-requisites. The subject examines the following topics: (a) Examining one's stereotypes; (b) Attitudes; (c) Beliefs; (d) Values; (e) Identifying weaknesses and strengths for self-development. COUNSELLING Most human beings yearn to be listened to, understood and accepted as they are. People with disabilities are no exception. This subject enhances participants' capacity to listen with empathy and to accept and understand people as they are, with genuine concern. This enables participants to counsel disabled people and their families. Participants will be able to describe the qualities of a counsellor and demonstrate the counselling process. The subject includes the following topics: (a) Definition of counselling; (b) Psychological problems of disabled people; (c) The counselling process; (d) Counselling interviews; (e) Values and ethics in counselling and the role of counsellor; (f) Empathetic listening. GROUP WORK Group work is intended to promote self-advocacy. Like any other marginalized group, people with disabilities need to organize themselves into self-help groups, and in turn make linkages in solidarity with other groups, for their voice to be heard. This subject will enable participants to describe and demonstrate the knowledge and skills of doing group work. It includes the following topics: (a) Size of groups; (b) The right skill mix among members; (c) Purposefulness of goals; (d) Structuring goals and tasks towards the optimum use of member resources; (e) Arriving at working approaches at a first meeting; (f) Providing adequate mechanisms for getting feedback; (g) Creating a participatory environment; (h) Group and individual goals; (i) Structure of goals; (j) Characteristics of groups; (k) Effective and ineffective groups; (l) Listening techniques; (m) Difficulties in decision making; (n) Factors that help decision making; (o) Leadership styles; (p) Tasks and maintenance; (q) Stages of development in groups, and their characteristics; (r) Group characteristics and work practices; (s) Communication; (t) Feedback; (u) Dos and don'ts in giving and receiving feedback. PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUES With the knowledge and experience gained from the case study, participants become familiar with problems of individual people with disabilities. This topic teaches participants the skills to pose problems to groups, analysis of the root causes of the problems and finding solutions, and, more importantly, how the group members can participate in solving the problems. This is essentially the method taught by Paulo Freire. Participants will learn the differences between banking and problem-posing education and the values associated with each. The subject includes the following topics: (a) Levels of awareness: magical, na ve, fanatical and critical; (b) Generative theme; (c) Code and its characteristics and use. MEDIA Participants acquire media skills such as drawing, puppetry, theatre, child-to-child activities, and other cultural forms appropriate to the local area. They use these skills to conduct meetings of community members, writing slogans and making posters on disability issues, taking lessons on disability issues for school children, and initiating child-to-child activities. This ultimately leads children without disabilities including children with disabilities in their play, bringing them to school, calling them by name rather than by disability-related nicknames, and even assisting with their studies. Participants disseminate information about causes of disability and preventative measures to be taken by going to the people and performing street plays, involving community members (especially ones with disabilities), on disability issues specific to that community. If they are to help change the situation of people with disabilities, participants must work with the community and with family members of disabled people to change their attitude towards people with disabilities. They must also work with disabled people for them to change their attitude towards themselves and the outside world. The approach is three-dimensional. The section includes the following topics: (a) Selection of messages; (b) The sender; (c) Receivers; (d) Choice of media and their characteristics appropriate to the audience and message; (e) Types of media and their characteristics; (f) Songs, storytelling, street theatre, puppetry, posters, and other folk media, including culture-specific ones. ANNEX IV. COURSES FOR THE NADT THAI SIGN LANGUAGE PROGRAMME This programme is modelled on a Gallaudet University programme, but focuses on the unique structure of Thai Sign Language, as used in the Thai deaf community. Students must complete a total of nine required courses for a total of 36 credit-hours; one credit-hour equals one hour of lecture or two hours of tutorial. Normally, students will do this by taking three courses each semester for three semesters. Each semester has 16 weeks of instruction. The minimum period of study for the certificate is three full-time semesters of study. All requirements for the certificate must be completed within three years from the date of initial registration. A mark of * indicates a course will be taught jointly by faculty from Gallaudet University and from Ratchasuda College; Ratchasuda faculty will teach all other courses. Course number Course title Lecture hrs per week Tutorial hrs per week Credit First Semester RSTS 010 Introduction to Sign Languages 3 2 4 and Deaf Communities RSTS 011 Methods of Teaching Sign 3 2 4 Languages* RSTS 012 Curriculum Design and Materials 3 2 4 Development for Sign Language Instruction* Second Semester RSTS 020 Introduction to the Structure 3 2 4 of Thai Sign Language RSTS 021 Practicum: Teaching Thai 1 6 4 Sign Language I RSTS 022 Practicum: Curriculum Design 1 6 4 and Materials Development for Thai Sign Language Instruction I Third Semester RSTS 031 Practicum: Teaching Thai 1 6 4 Sign Language II* RSTS 032 Practicum: Curriculum Design 1 6 4 and Materials Development for Thai Sign Language Instruction II* 1 Additional Elective Course 2 4 4 Total 18 36 36 Footnotes 1 Charles Handy, Understanding Organizations, fourth ed. (New York, Penguin Books, 1993) p.117. 2 Ibid., pp.116-117. 3 See case study 4: "Training new leaders at KAMPI, Philippines", by Venus M. Ilagan in this publication. 4 Charles Handy, opcit. p.322. 5 Ibid., p.100. 6 Contributed by David Kirton, Consultant to the Fuji Disabled Peoples Association, Suva. 7 Contributed by David Kirton, Consultant to the Fiji Disabled Peoples Association. 8 "Gunu sede" is a traditional form of community fundraising which involves someone sponsoring a "deed" or "forfeit" on behalf of another. It is often associated with the customary Fijian drink of kava, where one person will sponsor another to consume a "bilo" (coconut cup) of kava. 9 "Donor fatigue" is a phrase used to describe the eventual decline in public response to the Ethiopian drought in 1985-6, believed to have resulted from overuse of the media and too many calls on the public for their donations. 10 "Seconds" are goods which have a flaw and cannot be sold for the normal price. Often, the flaw is almost undetectable and can be repaired with little effort. The goods FDPA sold in this way were very good value for money. 11 Contributed by Anuradha Mohit, Chair, Women's Committee, Asian Blind Union. 12 Contributed by Venus M. Ilagan, President of KAMPI, Philippines. 13 Contributed by B. Venkatesh, Consultant and Trainer in Disability and Development, and founder and past Executive Director, Action on Disability and Development India, Bangalore, India. 14 Contributed by Shoji Nakanishi, Director, Human Care Association, Hachioji City, Japan. 15 Raymond Lifchez and Barbara Winslow, Design for Independent Living: The Environment and Physically Disabled People (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1979), p. 19. 16 Shoji Nakanishi, "IL embodies CBR concept" (paper presented at the DPI Asia-Pacific Regional Assembly organized by DPI-India on 24-28 January 1997 at New Delhi). 17 Shoji Nakanishi, "Family relations of persons with disabilities in terms of independent living in Japan" (paper presented at the DPI 4th Regional Assembly, organized by Indonesian Disabled Persons Association in November 1994 at Jakarta). 18 Junko Asaka (ed.), Independent living skill training manual (Tokyo, Human Care Association, 1994). 19 Ibid. 20 Contributed by Dr. James Woodward, Professor of Sign Language Linguistics and Deaf Studies and Director of Research at Ratchasuda College, Mahidol University at Salaya, Thailand, in cooperation with the National Association of the Deaf in Thailand. 21 The Redemptorist Vocational School for the Disabled, Year Book 1996, Pattaya, Thailand. 22 Contributed by D.M. Naidu, former Director, Association of People with Disability, Bangalore, India. 23 From "IBM and the Internet: an ancient history", available at http://www.ibm.com/Features/ancient.html 24 The Seoul proposals, adopted at the Senior Officials' Meeting to Mark the Mid-point of the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons, Seoul, 26-29 September 1997. 25 "The teleworking handbook", Telework, Telecottage and Telecentre Association (TCA), 1996, available at http//www.tca.org.uk/tcalhand.htm. 26 See a web page at http://teleworking.co.uk. 27 A report on the training on understanding the art of advocacy and building advocacy skills for sustainable development, held in Dhaka from 19 to 31 August 1995 by the Institute for Developing Policy Analysis and Advocacy (IDPAA), Dhaka. 28 Browning, Rhoades and Crooson, in Essays on Consumer Involvement of the Handicapped, (Eugene, University of Oregon Press, 1980). 29 "Effective Self Advocacy: Empowering People with Disabilities to Speak for Themselves," Report #90-4, Research and Training Center on Community Living, Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota, October 1990. 30 This part is based on "Self-determination at the community level" by Frank G. Bowe, paper presented to the National Conference on Self-Determination, Arlington, Virginia, 9-10 January 1989. 31 The guidelines and a checklist were reproduced here with the permission of the Fiji Disabled Peoples Association. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific United Nations, New York, 1997. (ST/ESCAP/1849) The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. This publication has been issued without formal editing. This publication was made possible through the generous financial assistance of the Japanese Trade Union Confederation - RENGO