| Hidden Sisters:
Women and Girls with Disabilities in the Asian and Pacific
Region
CONTENTS
The Problems of Discrimination
Despite their significant numbers, women and girls with
disabilities, especially in the developing countries of
the ESCAP region, remain hidden and silent, their concerns
unknown and their rights overlooked. Throughout the region,
in urban and rural communities alike, they have to face
the major problem of triple discrimination by society in
general: not only because of their disabilities, but also
because they are female and poor. Prejudice prevails even
within each of the three categories.
Among women, the woman with a disability is seen as inferior,
and even among other people with disabilities she is not
their equal. In fact, women with disabilities find themselves
in a "Catch 22" situation, in which they are forced
into being among the most isolated and marginalized. Thus
they become the poorest of people, leaving them at increased
risk of ill-health.
Women in poorer communities, and particularly those in
the developing countries, appear to be more vulnerable to
disability. A study, carried out in 1989 by the International
Labour Organisation (ILO) in six Asian and Pacific countries,
showed a relatively higher incidence of disability among
women between the ages of 15 and 44 when compared to men.1
Yet, overall, there are more disabled men than women. This
could be explained by the fact that women in that particular
age group suffer more from ill-health caused by too many
pregnancies, inadequate post-natal health and medical care,
and poor nutrition, all of which put them at greater risk
of disability. That there are fewer women than men with
disabilities, despite the fact that women generally live
longer than men, may indicate that girls and women with
disabilities simply receive less care and support than men,
leading to earlier death.
Disabled women face discrimination from birth. It is not
unknown for children born with congenital disabilities to
be killed or left to die. This is far more likely to happen
in the case of a girl-child. If allowed to survive, the
girl-child is likely to continue to face discrimination
within the family, receive less care and food, and be left
out of family interactions and activities. She will have
less access to health care and rehabilitation services,
fewer education and employment opportunities, and little
hope of marriage. She will also be more vulnerable to physical
and mental abuse.
Disability creates and exacerbates poverty, because of
economic strain and isolation, not just among individual
men or women but for the disabled person s entire family.
However, because far fewer opportunities for productive
work or gainful employment exist for the disabled woman
than for the disabled man, she is perceived as posing a
greater burden for the family.
The problems that confront women with disabilities are
even more severe in rural areas. The inadequate or total
lack of access to information, health care and rehabilitation
services is further compounded by much higher illiteracy
rates, longer distances to services and facilities, if they
exist at all, and more severe conditions of poverty than
in the urban areas. In addition, traditions and prejudices
that force women into a low status are likely to be widely
practised in the rural areas. One study on women with disabilities
in rural areas of the Philippines, for example, found that
more than 80 per cent had no independent means of livelihood
and were, in fact, totally dependent on others for their
very existence. The few who had jobs were grossly underpaid.2
Understanding the extent of the problems faced by women
with disabilities is hampered by the lack of relevant statistics
– not only just how many affected women there are,
but also their social and economic status. The number of
disabled women in the ESCAP region can be roughly estimated
from existing overall disability prevalence figures. The
mostly frequently cited figure is the 1976 World Health
Organization (WHO) estimate that about one in ten people
has a disability. However, this estimate has been the subject
of much debate because of the lack of standard definitions
of disability, and the different survey methodologies used
in the various studies from which this figure was derived.
Current thinking is that the prevalence of disability is
probably lower than the WHO estimate. One more recent estimate
of moderately to extensively disabled people in developing
countries puts the figure at around five per cent.3 Using
this lower disability prevalence rate, the number of women
with disabilities in Asia and the Pacific may therefore
be estimated at around 80 million.
It is important to understand that this number is growing
daily, not only because of the rising population but also
because of the growing number of elderly persons and the
rapid rate of urbanization which the region is experiencing.
Evidence suggests that there are now more disabled people
in urban areas, caused in part by the greater risk of injuries
resulting from road and industrial accidents.4 One study
estimates that some 8.5 million disabled persons are added
annually to the global figure or 23,200 a day.5 Based on
this estimate, the daily increase in the number of disabled
persons in the ESCAP region which contains about three-fifths
of the world population can be put at around 14,000, about
half of whom are women.
Despite the existence of this significant number of disabled
women in the ESCAP region, little attention has been devoted
to their concerns or their rights. The global growth of
two social movements in the last 20 years the women s movement
and the self-help movement of persons with disabilities
and the significant attention to the rights of these two
social groups at the international and national levels,
should have meant improvement in the status of women with
disabilities. Instead, disabled women s concerns and problems
have so far been inadequately addressed or supported by
either movement.
Hope for the future
However, there are several regional initiatives within
Asia and the Pacific which have significance for women with
disabilities. The Mania Declaration on the Agenda for Action
on Social Development in the ESCAP Region was adopted by
the Governments of the region in October 1994, thus affirming
their commitment to the alleviation of poverty, the expansion
of employment and the promotion of social integration.
The region s people with disabilities, having long been
subjected to systematic discrimination, and denied equal
status and opportunities as citizens, workers and consumers,
are among the disadvantaged and vulnerable groups identified
for special attention in the implementation of the Agenda
for Action on Social Development. The Agenda s plan of action
outlines affirmative actions aimed at creating conditions
and mechanisms which will enable people with disabilities,
including women and girls, to participate in, and benefit
from, the social development process.6
One such affirmative action is the Asian and Pacific Decade
of Disabled Persons, 1993-2002, which was launched at the
end of 1992,7 as a regional follow-up to the global United
Nations Decade of Disabled Persons (1983-1992). The central
aim of the Asian and Pacific Decade is to catalyse initiatives
in the ESCAP region towards full participation and equality,
and thereby provide a better quality of life for the millions
of people with disabilities in the region.
The Proclamation on the Full Participation and Equality
of People with Disabilities in the Asian and Pacific Region,
and the Agenda for Action for the Asian and Pacific Decade
of Disabled Persons, 1993-2002, (referred to below as the
Proclamation and the Agenda for Action for the Decade),
were adopted by ESCAP at its forty-ninth session in 1993.8
To date, 31 Governments have signed the Proclamation. The
Agenda for Action for the Decade (annex I) serves as a guide
to policy formulation and action by Governments, non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) and United Nations and its bodies and
agencies as well as individuals, for fulfilling the goals
of the Decade.
However, not every action to improve the status of disabled
persons benefits disabled women equally, and there is a
real danger that women with disabilities may be further
marginalized by the end of the Decade. If the Asian and
Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons is to make a difference
for women with disabilities in the region, greater attention
must be given to the issues faced by them and to increasing
their capacity to participate in the implementation of the
Agenda for Action for the Decade at the local, national
and regional levels.
At the Meeting to Review the Progress of the Asian and
Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons, 1993-2002, held in Bangkok
from 26 to 30 June 1995, a working group composed largely
of women with disabilities from the ESCAP region, discussed
the gender dimension in the implementation of the Agenda
for Action for the Decade. The recommendations that emanated
from the discussions of that working group were subsequently
adopted by the Meeting and are reproduced in annex II.
Women with disabilities have been specifically included
in the Plan of Action for the Advancement of Women in Asia
and the Pacific, adopted by the Second Asian and Pacific
Ministerial Conference on Women in Development held at Jakarta
in June 1994. The Jakarta Plan of Action, as it is popularly
known, will provide further impetus to efforts to improve
the situation of women and girls with disabilities.
This publication highlights the main issues concerning
women and girls with disabilities and makes recommendations
for their advancement within the framework of existing instruments,
especially the Agenda for Action for the Decade. Information
has been drawn from many different sources, including replies
to questionnaires sent out by ESCAP to the national focal
points for women-in-development issues and self-help organizations
of disabled persons in the region. The term "women
with disabilities" is used interchangeably with "disabled
women" and refers to the gender without differentiation
of age, while "girls with disabilities" or "disabled
girls" is used when girl-children or young women are
referred to.
The Main Issues
Attitudes and Images
A central reason why many women with disabilities are unable
to do more to improve their own situation is their lack
of self-esteem. Shown from birth, either through neglect
or through over-protection, that they have little value
or are unable to do much, girls with disabilities grow up
with the burden of that stigma and expect little of themselves.
Even a woman who becomes disabled later in life will have
her own sense of self-worth eroded by the prevailing attitude
that she has become a useless dependant.
While women the world over are striving for equality with
men, women with disabilities struggle to be recognized first
as persons and then as being female. There is a tendency
for care-givers, whether at home or in institutions, to
treat disabled persons as objects without feelings or the
right to decide on matters concerning them. This is particularly
the case with those who are extensively disabled and fully
dependent on others for their daily activities. In the case
of women, the gender bias in society imposes a subordinate
status on them, and increases the likelihood that disabled
women will have their individuality and rights ignored.
Despite rapid social, cultural and economic changes in
the developing countries of the ESCAP region, the traditional
role of the woman as the nurturer remains the norm. Throughout
her life, a woman is to a large extent defined by her capacity
as a daughter, wife or mother and, increasingly so, by the
work she does and the position she holds outside the home.
The disabled woman is not considered "marriageable"
because her disability is seen as a "defect" and
there is fear that her disability could be passed on to
her children. There is doubt, too, whether she would be
able to fully look after the home and family.
Universally, the incidence of marriage for disabled women
is lower than that for disabled men. In Nepal, a society
where marriage is the norm for women, 80 per cent of women
with disabilities are reported to be unmarried.9 In China,
the situation is comparatively better; 52 per cent of disabled
women over the age of 18 are unmarried.10 Since women with
disabilities are largely denied access to labour force participation,
they are unable to acquire either the status or the social
identity of being wives, mothers or workers.
Sexuality for women with disabilities is as much a part
of their identity, and as important to their well-being,
as it is for non-disabled women. Yet society at large is,
more often than not, surprised when women with disabilities
express their sexuality. Disabled girls and young women
are seldom included in programmes on reproductive health
education. In fact, they are commonly encouraged to repress
their sexuality.
Family shame, limited mobility or lack of ability to communicate
all serve to discourage a disabled woman from making contact
with others outside the immediate family. Loneliness compounds
the resulting sense of isolation and helplessness. In a
survey of the needs of disabled men and women between the
ages of 15 and 45, related to a project in Viet Nam, the
most commonly felt needs – expressed by more than
80 per cent of those interviewed – were for information
(about their disability), for schooling as well as for participation
in family and community activities.11
Their low self-esteem has not been helped by the mass media.
Positive images of women with disabilities – in roles
such as exerting their rights, and contributing to the wealth
and well-being of society – are rare in the mass media
of ESCAP developing countries. Whenever there are reports,
they usually feature the disabled woman as a victim and
an object of pity, in need of help. Because the mass media
plays such a powerful role in the formation of public opinion,
it can be destructive when it reinforces the public s tendency
to equate disability with helplessness on the part of the
disabled woman and perpetuates the denial of opportunities
for her to develop her capabilities. However, journalists
write and project the situation of women with disabilities
to the extent of their understanding. Their failure is therefore
as much the failure of those promoting the interests of
disabled persons to raise the awareness and understanding
of journalists and others in the media.
It is obvious that the disabled woman is trapped in a vicious
circle – her low self-esteem, cultivated from birth
by her immediate family or care-givers and reinforced by
her wider community and the media, results in her having
very low aspirations. She therefore makes few demands, or
none at all, of those around her and of society for her
rights and opportunities to break out of this vicious circle.
There is a critical need for the creation of an enabling
psychological and physical environment that is supportive
of the ability of the woman with a disability to function,
within the limits caused by the disability itself, as an
equal member of society. The main areas in which policy
and practice can produce such an enabling environment are
highlighted in the following sections.
Violence
Disabled girls and women are at high risk of being regularly
abused physically and mentally, most commonly by those around
them – family members and care-givers – at home
or in institutions for disabled persons. The abuse ranges
from beatings to rape. Few victims ever talk or complain,
let alone press charges. Many lack confidence that they
will be taken seriously, and fear of reprisals is common.
In fact, most victims simply do not know where or to whom
to turn for help. There is an urgent need to investigate
the extent of violence against women and girls with disabilities.
Public attention can then be mobilized to address the problem,
and protective steps taken to assist the victims and punish
the perpetrators.
Health Care and Rehabilitation
Disability implies, for a significant proportion of disabled
women, the need for regular medical treatment and care.
In those ESCAP developing countries and areas where public
health facilities are overloaded and lack adequate resources,
a disabled woman has to compete for services even if she
overcomes the difficulties which are often involved in reaching
the facilities. Resources allocated either by the family
or the State for her health care reflect the value they
place on her. To the extent that families and society believe
that a disabled woman has little or no economic value, they
are less likely to invest scarce resources in her. Even
in countries where health care is free, either for all or
for persons with disabilities, expenses are incurred for
transport, food and accommodation.
Rehabilitation, as defined by the United Nations Standard
Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with
Disabilities,12 "is a process aimed at enabling persons
with disabilities to reach and maintain their optimal physical,
sensory, intellectual, psychiatric and/or social functional
levels, thus providing them with the tools to change their
lives towards a higher level of independence". Rehabilitation
is a time-bound activity. It may include measures such as
the provision of appropriate assistive devices and the necessary
training in how to use them. It may also include training
in self-care and independent living. As with health care,
the disabled woman s access to rehabilitation is limited
by her low status.
In general, despite progress made during the United Nations
Decade of Disabled Persons, rehabilitation services in the
developing countries of the region are still inadequate
and poorly coordinated. In order to use rehabilitation facilities,
disabled women and girls must commute regularly to rehabilitation
centres, normally located in the cities, or stay at residential
facilities for a specific period of time. Commuting into
the cities poses serious difficulties for women and girls
with disabilities. It is also expensive for their families,
in terms of money, time and effort. The United Nations Children
s Fund (UNICEF) has reported that women and children receive
less than 20 per cent of rehabilitation services, such as
the provision of prosthetic and orthotic devices.13
Often, where residential facilities are available, they
do not cater to women. Even if they do, for cultural and
religious reasons, or simply because of over-protection
by their families, disabled women are less likely than men
to make use of such facilities.
As long as rehabilitation services are largely provided
by institutions and centres, they will remain out of reach
of the vast majority of disabled persons, particularly women.
Although concern had been expressed by experts as early
as the 1960s about the effectiveness of the conventional
system of institutionalized rehabilitation services, leading
to the introduction of community-based rehabilitation (CBR)
as an alternative, the situation has been slow to improve.
For most women with disabilities, their only hope for some
degree of rehabilitation lies in CBR reaching them where
they are, with the active involvement and support of their
families and communities. While certain rehabilitation services
requiring specific technology or skills will still need
to be based in the cities, this is not the case for many
essential types of assistance. For example, training in
basic skills such as self-care (eating, drinking, dressing
and personal hygiene) and mobility for visually-impaired
women is better done in the environment of the home. Such
assistance can make a highly significant contribution to
the development of the self-reliance and dignity of a woman
with a disability.
Education and Vocational Training
Throughout the Asian and Pacific region, public attitudes
are changing regarding the value of educating and training
women. The situation concerning women s education is improving
within much of the region, and illiteracy rates among women
have declined.14 However, little has changed in this respect
for women with disabilities. The prejudice surrounding their
ability and value continues to perpetuate the view that
educating them is futile. Opportunities for girls with disabilities
to receive an education or to attend training courses are
available to only a few.
For example, the then International Council on Education
of the Visually Handicapped estimated that only two per
cent of visually-impaired children in developing countries
receive any formal schooling.15 In China, where there are
some 5 million disabled children aged between 7 and 15 years,
only 6 per cent are enrolled in schools.16 It is reasonable
to expect that the number of girls included in those estimates
is significantly less than half. One report on women with
disabilities in the Raichur district of Karnataka State,
India, indicated that the literacy rate of such women was
7 per cent compared to a general literacy rate for the State
of 46 per cent.17
Traditionally, schools for disabled children tend to be
segregated institutions, most commonly for those with visual,
hearing and intellectual impairments. Girls who have extensive
physical disabilities therefore have even less opportunity
for schooling. The few special schools that exist are concentrated
in large cities. Although they usually have residential
facilities, the residential system – as has been previously
seen in the case of rehabilitation centres – discriminates
against access by girls.
So long as education for people with disabilities is largely
confined to a segregated system, few disabled girls and
women will benefit. There is an urgent need to consider
policies and programmes that will place greater emphasis
on the participation of persons with disabilities in the
mainstream education system. Certainly the challenges are
great. Existing school buildings are usually not designed
for easy access by those with physical disabilities. At
the same time, there is an acute shortage of trained teachers,
suitable teaching materials and text books in appropriate
formats, and educational devices which meet the specific
learning needs of persons with disabilities.
Evidence indicates that a predominantly segregated school
system for disabled children is unlikely to be adequate
and accessible for this group of children, and that it is
also educationally inferior. A study of disabled girls,
both in special (usually residential) schools and in regular
schools, found that those in special schools were less proficient
in basic literacy and numeracy skills, had lower expectations
about their own capabilities and lacked confidence in social
settings.18 Thus it is obvious that mainstreaming girls
with disabilities into society must begin at school.
Education is the key to the advancement of women and girls
with disabilities; it provides access to information, enables
them to communicate their needs, interests and experiences,
brings them into contact with other students, increases
their confidence and encourages them to assert their rights.
Without a basic education, their chances for employment
are almost nil.
While the global trend is for greater gender equality in
education and vocational training, boys and girls with the
same disability often receive different kinds of education,
with disabled girls often confined to the most traditional
female occupations. One study suggests that girls with disabilities,
as a consequence of sex-role stereotyping, develop limited,
conventional views of what constitutes careers for men and
women. This is a clear indication of their lack of awareness
and understanding of the changes in perception brought about
by the women s movement.
Employment
Women in general face discrimination in employment. For
women with disabilities, this discrimination is far greater.
In situations where there is high unemployment, opportunities
for renumerative work tend to be severely limited. When
disabled women do find jobs, they receive considerably lower
wages. For example, even for an industrialized country,
studies have shown that a disabled woman working full-time
earns only 56 per cent of the salary of a full-time employed
disabled man.19 In fact, disabled women earn the lowest
wages compared to disabled men or non-disabled women.
Furthermore, in addition to the prejudice and discrimination
barrier, the inaccessibility of the physical environment
(e.g., buildings, roads, transport and toilet facilities)
is a serious obstacle to disabled women working outside
their homes. Since the lack of mobility limits disabled
women from obtaining raw materials and marketing their products
themselves, engaging in piece-work is the most common form
of income-generation available to them. Examples of piece-work
by disabled women and girls include labour-intensive and
poorly paid activities such as weaving, sewing, basket-making,
the assembling of toys and production of handicraft items.
The materials are delivered to their homes and the finished
products are collected by agents. There is no legal or social
protection. Disabled women and girls may be exposed to unsafe
materials and subjected to excessive hours of work under
harsh conditions. Even where disabled women have jobs, their
rights as workers may be overlooked. Faced with discrimination,
little job mobility and few skills, disabled women workers
may be forced to endure oppressive working conditions.
Despite the most optimistic outlook for change in employment
opportunities for women with disabilities, the present reality
is that the best hope for productive work may lie in self-employment,
probably on a cooperative basis with others. While numerous
projects exist which provide skills training for disabled
women, they frequently fall short of meeting the ultimate
goal of providing a means of adequate income.
A critical need remains for programmes such as credit schemes,
entrepreneurial skills training and advisory services to
include disabled women in the ESCAP region and to develop
a niche in the market for the goods and services they can
offer. For women with disabilities in rural communities,
little attention has so far been given to developing options
for productive and renumerative work, or the requisite training
that would be appropriate for them.
Apart from economic independence, work is an essential
means of enabling a person to develop a sense of identity
and self-esteem. Thus gainful employment is an important
means of promoting the social integration of disabled women.
From the perspective of the State, investing in the education
and training of women with disabilities, and promoting opportunities
for their employment, is sound economic and social policy.
Gainfully employed women with disabilities contribute actively
to the economy.
Participation in Development
The potential contribution of disabled women to the economy
and to society has not been given sufficient attention by
policy-makers in the ESCAP region. While the specific nature
of their contribution might be influenced by the nature
of the disability, it has been suggested that coping with
disability produces certain strengths in individuals. It
may lead to the development of inner resilience, patience,
perseverance and an ability to deal in a positive way with
the vicissitudes of everyday life, thus shaping individuals
who can benefit society.20 The fact is, however, that most
women with disabilities have not had equal access to the
opportunities they need to help them contribute to, and
benefit from, development.
The two social movements – the women s movement and
the self-help movement of people with disabilities –
have so far had a limited impact on improving the quality
of life of women with disabilities in the ESCAP region.
For instance, although the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies
for the Advancement of Women to the Year 2000 have been
instrumental in an overall improvement of the status of
women, their impact has been insignificant for women with
disabilities. The Forward-looking Strategies had identified
disabled women as requiring "special concern".21
However, 10 years on, it is clear that insufficient attention
has been given to their situation. An examination of 12
country reports from Asia and the Pacific on the status
of women, which is to be submitted to the Fourth World Conference
on Women to be held in September 1995, reveals that only
one report makes any direct mention of women with disabilities.
That one report admitted that "specific programmes
for...disabled women...are not available at the moment.
However, interventions in such areas are under active consideration."
In responses to a survey conducted by ESCAP for this publication,
only one out of 16 replies from national focal points for
women-in-development indicated that the concerns of women
and girls with disabilities had been integrated into the
overall policy for women in development. Policies and programmes
for disabled women and girls are still too often thought
of in terms of providing welfare services for them. There
continues to be little recognition that they can be partners
in development.
As for the self-help movement of people with disabilities
in developing countries of the ESCAP region, its efforts
to incorporate women s concerns into its agenda thus far
have been too few and generally ineffective. Apart from
a lack of resources for sustained action, there is also
an apparent lack of strategic focus in the activities organized
to promote the advancement of women with disabilities. Activities
are frequently carried out for women with disabilities,
without parallel efforts to increase their participation
in decision-making related to those activities.
Greater efforts are needed to raise awareness among members
of self-help organizations regarding the gender issue. In
particular, disabled women members need to understand the
gender perspectives of the problems they face, and to work
towards their right to equal participation in the policy-making
and management activities of such organizations.
The responses of self-help organizations in the region
to the ESCAP questionnaire indicated that, in all cases
where membership comprised both men and women with disabilities,
women were significantly under-represented in the highest
decision-making body of each of those organizations. Yet,
in more than 70 per cent of the self-help organizations,
a special committee existed for promoting the advancement
of its women members and disabled women at large.
The end-result may be that women s concerns become marginalized,
and not integrated into the central policy-making mechanism
of the organization. This situation may be indicative of
the poor awareness of gender issues among the male policy-makers
who predominate in these organizations.
Strategy for Action
Overall strategy
Women with disabilities in the ESCAP region are left out
of the development process because of two distinct but interlinked
fundamental barriers:
The stigma surrounding their disability, resulting in a
lack of measures at all levels of society which take into
account their particular needs and aspirations;
Their subordinate position as women in society. The combined
effect of both barriers is the extreme deprivation and marginalization
of women with disabilities.
Any strategy to mainstream their concerns and participation
in the development process must take into account these
barriers. Therefore, to overcome these barriers, a two-pronged
strategy is proposed which will:
Meet their practical needs, particularly for health care,
rehabilitation, education, training and employment, and
social integration;
Empower them to actively seek more opportunities, greater
access to resources and more equal participation in decision-making
with: (a) disabled men; and (b) non-disabled women.
Programmes developed with the above -mentioned overall
strategy in mind should enable women and girls with disabilities
to participate in the :
Implementation of the Agenda for Action for the Decade;
Self-help movement of people with disabilities in the ESCAP
region;
Women's movement in the ESCAP region.
The Agenda for Action for the Decade identifies under 12
major policy categories for implementation by Governments,
NGOs, and the United Nations agencies and bodies during
the Decade. Several forums are at present in place for generating
broad support for the Agenda for Action for the Decade.
One is the Regional Interagency Committee for Asia and the
Pacific Subcommittee on Disability-related Concerns (referred
to below as the Task Force) which meets once a year. The
Task force is composed of United Nations agencies and bodies,
as well as regional non-governmental organizations and networks
concerned with disability issues. Governments of the ESCAP
region also participate in the Task force meetings. Another
forum is a series of biennial regional meetings to review
the progress of the Decade. It involves the participation
of Governments, and members and affiliates of the Task Force.
The Task Force and the biennial regional meetings are convened
by the ESCAP secretariat. The regional NGO Network for the
Promotion of the Asian and Pacific Decade, including information
exchange among NGOs, annual public awareness campaigns and
annual conferences in different countries of the ESCAP region.
While women with disabilities participate in all these forums,
there is a need to strengthen their effectiveness in promoting
the interests of disabled women and girls.
Self-help organizations of people with disabilities exists
in many countries of the Asia and Pacific region at various
levels: community national and regional. In many cases,
mechanisms have been established for involving those organizations
in policy-making and other activities at the different levels.
But there remains the need for more effective representation
of the concerns of disabled women, and for the consistent
effort to incorporate those concerns into policy formulation
for the advancement of marganilized groups, particularly
programmes on poverty alleviation, employment expansion
and social integration.
The extensive network of women's organization in the ESCAP
region offers a potentially important partnership opportunity.
However , women and girls with disabilities are not yet
adequately linked up with this network and there is a glaring
lack of collaborative effort between the self-help movement
of people with disabilities and the women's movement.
The underlying principle for all such effort is the direct
involvement of disabled women. It should be emphasized that,
for long-term gains, they must be given every opportunity
to promote their own cause. They must also be empowered
to influence decision making, and allowed to participate
in the implementation of activities aimed at improving their
social and economic status.
Women on the Move
- A Family of My Own
- Setting the Trail in Bhutan
- APH and N S Hema
- Making a Living
A Family of My Own
Carmen Reyes-Zubiaga is the Manager for Public Relations,
Development and Planning of Tahanang Walang Hagdanan (House
with No Steps), Philippines.
I was not quite two when I had polio. I grew up under the
care of my five older brothers. I remember how much fun
I had with them. Although from an early age my mother sought
to convince me that I would not marry but would be taken
care of by my brothers for the rest of my life, I never
accepted the destiny that she had in mind for me.
As with most girls, my adolescent years were critical to
the development of my social relationships outside the family.
I could not always join friends and was often depressed
when I thought of the fun they might be having out on the
beach, at parties, or elsewhere. I had crushes on boys just
like other girls but my friends were not encouraging because
they doubted if men would date me. However, I did have a
number of boyfriends. They made me feel attractive and showered
me with affection. My mother was wary of my relationships
with boys and wanted to protect me from being hurt.
When I met Dennis, I knew right from the start that he
really liked me. He was not the picture of my ideal man
but he had qualities that are hard to find: sincerity, simplicity,
principles and a sense of purpose in life. When he asked
me to marry him, I asked if he would accept what his family
would say about me. It was his determination to stand by
me which helped me make up my mind.
Initially, my family was not happy with our decision to
marry. When Dennis asked my mother for permission to marry
me, she tearfully pleaded with me to change my mind. I told
her that I wanted somebody to take care of me and have children
of my own. I was capable of having my own family and I would
work hard to have a happy home. My mother eventually gave
her blessings when she saw how determined we both were.
We were married five months after we had first met. Our
wedding was held in a big church in my home town on 27 August
1988. It was the first time people in our town saw a bride
in a wheelchair. A prime-time television talkshow covered
our wedding and broadcast it throughout the country. Even
now, I am still surprised by strangers who recognize me
from that television talkshow. Our wedding has been an inspiration
to many.
With our small savings we built a house beside my parents
home. The house was designed to suit my needs and I had
no problems carrying out my tasks as a housewife.
After seven years, I can proudly say that I am happy and
content. We have two children, both boys. Jolly (Jose Ronaldo),
our eldest, aged 6, is now in the first grade. Mogo (Moses
Gregorio), aged 4, is in kindergarten. Both of them are
happy, healthy and active children. Our hope is to give
them the best education possible and prepare them for a
better future.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Kesang Choden: Setting the Trail in Bhutan
Kesang Choden, 23, is a first year trainee teacher at the
National Institute of Education, Bhutan. She is the first
blind woman to be admitted to the Institute. This is her
story of her struggles and aspirations.
I was born in a remote area in central Bhutan. My village
is about two days walk from the nearest road accessible
to motor vehicles. My parents told me that I lost my sight
when I was two. I do not remember how it happened; it seems
my life has always been engulfed by darkness.
Despite their poverty and isolation, my parents were able
to put me in a school for the blind. I was a boarder in
the school and was separated from my family for long periods.
For the first couple of weeks in school, I learned the alphabet
and simple words only. Then I started to read and write.
At first, I found reading and writing very difficult. But
gradually, it became easier and I managed to complete class
eight without much difficulty. Since I could go no further
with my education at the school for the blind, I was sent
to a high school. I continued to live in the dormitory of
the school for the blind and walked daily to the high school
which was about 15 minutes walk away. There, I had a tough
time as I was the only blind student. It was very hard for
me to cope with my studies. I also found it difficult to
take part in social activities. With much suffering, I completed
class ten and so completed high school.
I wanted to become a teacher, so I decided to enrol in
the National Institute of Education (NIE) which is in Samtse,
in the southern part of the country. I chose the profession
because it is an honourable one and will allow me to serve
my country meaningfully. But it has been a struggle. There
are no facilities for blind trainees like me; there are
no references in Braille. I am fully dependent on friends.
I ask them to read the reference books and materials to
me and I take notes. This is how I manage to do my assignments.
It takes me many more hours than others. I have completed
my first year. I had felt, at times, that the demands were
too great, but I am not willing to give up. I am the first
visually impaired woman trainee, and I want to set a good
example to other disabled women in Bhutan.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
APH and N S Hema
At the age of 18, N S Hema, together with two others, co-founded
the Association of the Physically Handicapped in the city
of Bangalore, southern India. Little was she to know then
that the organization would remain the centre of her dreams
and work for over 35 years.
Hema was four when she caught polio. It was so severe that
initially it left her with little mobility below the neck.
It was during World War II and few in India knew about the
disease at that time. It was a year and a half later, after
a desperate search by her parents for a cure, before they
were told that there was no known cure. She never went to
school. Tutors and her parents taught her at home. Hema
remembers growing into a young girl who wanted to keep to
a world of her own and who, at the same time, constantly
asked what the future held for her.
Her family moved to Bombay for a year and there two events
occurred which opened up her world and shaped her future.
For the first time, Hema met other disabled girls of her
age at the hospital in Bombay where she had gone for treatment,
and where she also found friendship and understanding. She
learned the importance of meeting others with disabilities.
Her father had also arranged for her to be fitted with a
wheelchair at an army centre. There she met Mr Devan, who
lived in a home for disabled veterans. He became her mentor
and subsequently her partner in the work of APH.
Back in Bangalore, together with another social worker,
Hema and Mr Devan organized meetings of persons with disabilities.
At first, the meetings were solely for providing opportunities
for them to meet socially. Later, discussions turned to
the plight of people with disabilities and what could be
done to create opportunities for improving their lives.
It was felt that the most useful thing that could be done
was to provide training which would prepare disabled persons
for jobs which would give them a regular wage. Hema s father
s garage was converted into a training centre and APH came
into existence. The year was 1959.
Although jobs were found for them in the factories in and
around Bangalore, the trainees found it difficult to fit
because of lack of support from the other workers, and they
pleaded to be taken back by the centre. The situation shaped
the next phase in the development of APH – while it
continued to provide skills training, it competed for contracts
to produce various parts and products for the industries
in the area. The trainees stayed for at least two years
and were paid a stipend. Hema s family connections with
local industrialists were helpful in obtaining contracts
and the centre grew to a medium-sized industry.
By 1970, the number of trainees had grown to 450 when a
crisis erupted. The trainees went on strike, demanding recognition
as regular employees with pay and benefits. The strike lasted
over a year and the dispute went to the courts. Work came
to a complete halt, contracts were lost, equipment and materials
were removed. It appeared to Hema and Mr Devan that the
centre which had taken more than a decade to build up was
being demolished before their very eyes. For a while they
could not understand how the trainees could have turned
against the centre which had with all sincerity wanted to
help them. Acceptance came when they realised that the trainees
had aspirations too and were prepared to fight for them,
and as such, were to be respected and valued. APH learned
its lessons and restructured into two separate entities
– an industry and a training centre. The industry
generated income to run the training centre, which in turn
provided skilled labour.
In the meantime, new work with disabled children was started.
Coaxed by Mr Devan, who was convinced that if children with
disabilities were reached early enough, the intervention
would make a very significant difference to their future,
Hema started a school in 1973 with ten children. The number
was kept deliberately small "in case we failed,"
she explained. "I embarked on this project with great
trepidation. I had never gone to school, so what did I know
about schools?" Today, the school has 200 students
with classes from kindergarten to middle secondary level.
Through the school, the students receive medical assessments
and rehabilitation services. The students and their families
in turn have led APH to reach others. Currently, APH s education
and community rehabilitation work involves some 800 children.
Because the school has gained recognition for its high standards,
parents vie for places in the school for their non-disabled
children. Now, a fifth of the students in the school are
non-disabled children and the integration creates a positive
environment for interaction between disabled and non-disabled
children and their families.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Yodying Khajitmanee: Making a Living
It was the rainy season in Thailand and the downpour started
soon after Yodying Khajitmanee had set up her stall for
women s clothing on the sidewalk of Silom Road, in the commercial
heart of Bangkok. Three hours later, it was still raining
and the clothes remained covered by plastic sheets. "As
you can see, it s not a good day for business," she
grinned as she signed the words. Yodying has been deaf from
birth and is one of some 30 hearing-impaired sidewalk traders
in the area.
She was introduced into this business by a deaf friend
eight years ago. "It was a much smaller stall then.
I had 5,000 baht (about US$200) from my savings for capital."
Promise of better money prompted her to leave her job as
a seamstress in a tailor s shop. With two children to bring
up on her own, the daily wages of 60 baht (about US$2.40)
were simply not enough.
Everyday, except Wednesdays – which is her day off
– Yodying sets up her stall at about half past four
in the afternoon. If the weather is good, she stays until
about 11 at night. As her stall is located in a main tourist
shopping area in Bangkok, most of her customers are foreigners.
Although earnings vary from day to day, the business has
provided her with a reasonable income of at least 5,000
baht a month. Overheads are few: rent for storage of the
goods at a nearby ware- house and monthly "goodwill"
money to keep her spot on the street. Her stall is flanked
by other stalls, run also by deaf persons selling much the
same merchandise as hers. Whereas in other circumstances,
the competition might have caused uneasy relationships,
here their common disability seems to have created an atmosphere
of mutual support and camaraderie.
Yodying's two children are both studying at the university
with the help of scholarships. However, she does not expect
them to support her in her old age. She reckons she will
stop operating her sidewalk stall when she reaches 50 (she
s 43 now) and expects that the interest from her savings
in the bank will provide her with sufficient income to live
on.
Gender Dimensions of the Implementation of the
Agenda for Action
Adopted by the Meeting to Review the Progress of the Asian
and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons, 1993-2002, Bangkok,
26 – 30 June 1995.
Critical issues
Women and girls with disabilities in every community, whether
urban or rural, whether in a developed or a developing country
or territory in the ESCAP region, experience triple discrimination:
from being female, disabled and poor. Discrimination and
prejudice prevail even within each of those groups. Among
women, the disabled woman is seen as inferior; among people
with disabilities, she is not their equal. Thus women with
disabilities are among the most isolated, marginalized and
poorest of people.
They are likely to receive less care and food and be left
out of family interactions, and community activities. They
also have less access to health care and rehabilitation
services, fewer opportunities to be educated and employed
and little hope of marriage. They will be more vulnerable
to physical and psychological abuse.
All actions to improve the status of disabled persons do
not always benefit women and girls with disabilities equally.
If the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons, 1993-2002,
is to make a difference for women and girls with disabilities
in the region, greater attention must be given to the issues
faced by them and to increasing their capacity to participate
in the local-, national- and international-level implementation
of the Agenda for Action.
Recommendations
1. National coordination
Strategic objective:
To enable representatives of women with disabilities to
be involved in policy - and decision-making on issues that
relate to them at the national level.
Action to be taken:
1.1 Include women with disabilities as members of the national
coordination committee, their number to be equal to the
number of men with disabilities in the committee.
Action by: National coordination committees for disability
concerns.
1.2 Provide the means for them to develop the skills required
for effective functioning in the committee.
Action by: Self-help organizations of people with disabilities,
organizations concerned with human resources development
and empowerment among women.
2. Legislation
Strategic objective:
To protect and promote the rights of disabled women.
Action to be taken:
2.1 Identify, examine and amend existing legal and policy
provisions which may discriminate against women with disabilities
and restrict their access to public services and participation
in society.
Action by: Governments, self-help organizations of people
with disabilities.
2.2 Initiate and strengthen activities to inform and educate
women and girls with disabilities as well as the public
(including women and men with disabilities), regarding their
rights.
Action by: Governments, self-help organizations of people
with disabilities, women s organizations, particularly those
engaged in the promotion of legal literacy.
2.3 Provide free legal service to women with disabilities.
Action by: Governments and legal aid organizations.
3. Information
Strategic objective:
To generate, collate and disseminate information on the
situation of women with disabilities to provide a sound
basis for policy formulation and action, and to increase
public awareness.
Action to be taken:
3.1 Incorporate the collection of gender-specific data
in surveys on the disability situation at national level
and by the United Nations system.
Action by: Governments, UNICEF, UNIFEM.
3.2 Undertake studies on the actual living conditions of
disabled women in urban and rural areas, particularly those
in the poorest and most disadvantaged communities, with
a view to identifying ways to improving their status and
living conditions.
Action by: Governments, self-help organizations of people
with disabilities, women s organizations, organizations
working on urban management and housing rights and on rural
poverty alleviation.
3.3 Record and document the experiences of women with disabilities
in ESCAP developing and least developed countries.
Action by: Self-help organizations of people with disabilities,
women's' organizations and media organizations.
3.4 Investigate and report on the extent and nature of
violence against disabled women and girls, with a view to
formulating measures for their protection and redress.
Action by: Governments, self-help organizations of people
with disabilities, women's' organizations and regional networks
involved in campaigning on violence against women.
4. Public Awareness
Strategic objective
To generate, collate and disseminate information on the
situation of women with disabilities to provide a sound
basis for policy formulation and action , and to increase
public awareness.
Action to be taken
4.1 Raise awareness among media persons in the ESCAP region
on issues relating to women and girls with disabilities
and encourage their support for promoting positive public
attitudes regarding women and girls with disabilities.
Action by: Self-help organizations of people with disabilities,
organizations working on social mobilization of marginalized
groups, UNICEF, UNESCO, the Asian Cultural Centre for UNESCO.
4.2 Include women and girls with disabilities in all activities
(e.g., sports and the arts) and materials (e.g., posters,
commemorative stamps, first day covers and training packages)
aimed at public information, education and social mobilization
on disability issues.
Action by: Governments, self-help organizations of people
with disabilities, media organizations.
5. Accessibility and Communication
No additional recommendations for women and girls with disabilities.
6. Education
Strategic objective:
To ensure that all girls and women with disabilities be
given the fullest possible opportunity for education.
Action to be taken:
6.1 Study the reasons for the low enrolment of girls and
women with disabilities in schools, higher learning institutions,
functional literacy and other non-formal education programmes,
with a view to evolving and implementing a comprehensive
plan to eliminate barriers to their enrolment.
Action by: Governments and UNICEF.
6.2 Incorporate measures to address the education needs
of disabled women and girls in all policies and programmes
to achieve the UNESCO goal of Education for All.
Action by: Governments, UNESCO, UNICEF and UNDP, NGOs concerned
with the enhancement and promotion of functional literacy.
6.3 Set targets for girls and women with disabilities for
all education and literacy programmes, particularly those
that focus on girls and women in general.
Action by: Governments and NGOs working on the promotion
of education and functional literacy among marginalized
groups.
6.4 Integrate the education and functional literacy needs
of women and girls with disabilities in all UNESCO s activities
to promote education of girls.
Action by: UNESCO and NGOs supporting UNESCO s objectives.
6.5 Support exchanges on models of integrated education
for disabled children.
Action by: Governments, UNESCO and UNICEF.
6.6 Request relevant international agencies and bodies
through their existing advisory services to governments
in the ESCAP region, to provide technical advice to governments
in the formulation of comprehensive plans for the education
of children with disabilities, with attention to equal access
for disabled girls.
Action by: UNESCO, UNICEF.
7.Training and employment
Strategic objective:
To provide equal opportunities for vocational training
and employment for women and girls with disabilities.
Action to be taken:
7.1 Establish a system to identify and provide jobs in
all sectors which are suited to the abilities, potential
and aspirations of women with disabilities.
Action by: Governments, organizations involved in community
development, vocational training and other human resource
development activities.
7.2 Increase the intake of women and girls with disabilities
in vocational training and integrate them with the requisite
support services, into existing vocational training facilities.
Action by: Governments, NGOs involved in vocational training
for persons with disabilities.
7.3 Provide opportunity for promotion of women with disabilities
by upgrading their skills.
Action by: Governments, NGOs involved in vocational training
for persons with disabilities.
7.4 Protect the rights of women with disabilities in the
workplace.
Action by: Labour unions, organizations concerned with
the rights of women workers
7.5 Protect the health and safety of women with disabilities
in the workplace.
Action by: Labour unions, organizations concerned with
the rights of women workers.
7.6 Educate employers and fellow employees to ensure the
rights of women with disabilities to work free from psychological
and/or sexual harassment.
Action by: Labour unions, organizations concerned with
the rights of women workers.
7.7 Strengthen training in business development, product
quality control, marketing and distribution of products
and services by women with disabilities who are self-employed
either as individuals or as a group.
Action by: Governments, UN agencies, NGOs working on small
business development
7.8 Specify the inclusion of women with disabilities as
target beneficiaries of credit schemes directed at poverty
alleviation among women.
Action by: Governments, organizations concerned with provision
of credit in urban and rural development projects.
8. Prevention of causes of disabilities
No additional recommendations for women and girls with disabilities.
9.Rehabilitation services (health and social development)
Strategic objective:
To ensure that women and girls with disabilities have equal
access to health care and rehabilitation services.
Action to be taken:
9.1 Strengthen community health care and community-based
rehabilitation services, and make available information
about them; so that women and girls with disabilities will
be able to have greater access to them.
Action by: Governments and NGOs involved in community-based
rehabilitation
9.2 Increase the training of women with disabilities as
community-based rehabilitation workers to enhance service
delivery to more women and girls with disabilities.
Action by: Governments and NGOs involved in community-based
rehabilitation.
10. Assistive devices
Strategic objective:
To increase the availability of assistive devices for women
and girls with disabilities.
Action to be taken:
10.1 Promote the production and distribution of assistive
devices which are appropriate for women and girls with disabilities
and ensure that they have equal access to existing subsidies
and concessions.
Action by: Governments and NGOs involved in the production
and distribution of assistive devices.
11. Self-help organizations
Strategic objective:
To strengthen the capacity of women with disabilities to
include their concerns into the agenda of self-help organizations
and to provide them with equal opportunities to influence
policy and decision-making in those organizations.
Action to be taken:
Self-help organizations of people with disabilities should:
11.1 Take special action to recruit more women and girls
with disabilities as members so as to improve the gender
balance in the organizations and better represent the interests
of women and girls with disabilities.
11.2 Aim towards equal representation of women members
in their policy- and decision-making bodies.
11.3 Form committees elected by the women members to promote
the advancement of women and girls with disabilities.
11.4 Raise the awareness of women and girls with disabilities
regarding gender issues, with a view to increasing their
ability to analyse the barriers caused by gender bias and
to develop the skills to deal with those barriers in everyday
life.
11.5 Include equal numbers of women in leadership and management
training activities.
11.6 Strengthen cooperation with women s organizations
through joint projects on issues faced by women and girls
with disabilities.
11.7 Approach, in collaboration with the national focal
points on disability, all multilateral, bilateral and national
funding agencies to ensure that women and girls with disabilities
are explicitly cited as target beneficiaries of development
programmes which are intended to be gender-sensitive.
12. Regional cooperation
Strategic objective:
To enhance the sharing of information and experience on
the advancement of women and girls with disabilities and
to strengthen their effectiveness in advocacy at relevant
regional forums.
Action to be taken:
12.1 Encourage and support networking among women with
disabilities, and \between women with disabilities and mainstream
women s organizations as well as other NGOs.
Action by: Self-help organizations of people with disabilities,
women's' organizations and NGOs.
12.2 Ensure equal representation of men and women in bilateral
exchange programmes in the field of disability.
Action by: Governments and NGOs.
12.3 Discussion on the progress of efforts to promote the
implementation of the recommendations regarding women and
girls with disabilities should be included in the agenda
of the meetings of the Asia-Pacific Inter-organizational
Task Force on Disability-related Concerns and the biennial
regional meetings to review the progress of the Decade.
Action by: All members of the Inter-organizational Task-Force
on Disability-related Concerns.
12.4 Country reports and reports by NGOs for future biennial
regional reviews should include gender-segregated data and
information on women and girls with disabilities with respect
to implementation of all areas of the Agenda for Action.
References
1 International Labour Office, Dispelling the Shadow of
Neglect, a survey on women and disabilities in six Asian
and Pacific countries, Geneva 1989.
2 Gerarado Arroyo Porta, The Situation of Disabled Women
in Rural Areas: a problem in need of concerted action. Paper
presented at the Second DPI Asia Pacific Regional Assembly
and Training Seminar on Equalization of Opportunities, 27
August-2 September 1988, Bangkok.
3 Einar Helander, Prejudice and Dignity: an introduction
to community-based rehabilitation, United Nations Development
Programme, New York, 1992.
4 Peter Coleridge, Disability, Liberation and Development,
Oxfam, Oxford, 1993.
5 Einar Helander, op cit.
6 United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia
and the Pacific, Manila Declaration on the Agenda for Action
on Social Development in the ESCAP Region (ST/ESCAP/1464).
7 United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia
and the Pacific, Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons,
1993-2002: The Starting Point (ST/ESCAP/1342).
8 Commission resolution 49/6: Proclamation and Agenda for
Action for the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons,
1993-2002.
9 Sushila Paudel, in a paper contributed to the Training
Workshop for Women with Disabilities, 22-23 June 1995, Bangkok.
10 China Disabled Persons Federation, in a paper contributed
to the Training Workshop for Women with Disabilities, 22-23
June 1995, Bangkok.
11 P. Mendis, Report from a CBR programme in Viet Nam,
quoted by Einar Helander in Prejudice and Dignity.
12 United Nations General Assembly resolution 48/96 of
20 December 1993 on the Standard Rules on the Equalization
of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities.
13 UNICEF, Relief and Rehabilitation of Traumatized Children
in War Situations. Paper submitted for the World Summit
on Children, 1990.
14 Jakarta Declaration for the Advancement of Women in
Asia and the Pacific, 1994 (ST/ESCAP/1411).
15 Quoted by Judith Heumann in How Women with Disabilities
Can Advance into the Mainstream of Society. Paper for the
Seminar on Disabled Women, 20-24 August 1990, Vienna.
16 Esther Boylan, Women and Disability, Zed Books, London,
1991.
17 N S Hema, in a paper contributed to the Training Workshop
for Women with Disabilities, 22-23 June 1995, Bangkok.
18 D. Perry, More Equal than Some, London, 1984. Quoted
by Sheila Stace in Vocational Rehabilitation for Women with
Disabilities, ILO, Geneva, 1986.
19 F. Bowe, Disabled Women in America: a statistical report
drawn from census data. President s Committee on Employment
of the Handicapped, Washington D.C., 1984. Quoted in Women
and Disability: some issues. Division for the Advancement
of Women, United Nations, Vienna, 1990.
20 Women and Disability, paper prepared by the Division
for the Advancement of Women, United Nations, Vienna, for
the Seminar on Disabled Women, Vienna, 20-24 August 1990.
21 United Nations, Report of the World Conference to Review
and Appraise the Achievements of the United Nations Decade
for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, Nairobi, 15-26
July 1985 (A/CONF. 116/28).
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