Compendium on Energy
Conservation Legislation
in Countries of the Asia and Pacific Region
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Part One: Overview of Energy Conservation Legislation in the Asia and Pacific Region
2 Principal elements of energy efficiency promotion policies and legislation
SECTIONS IN THIS CHAPTER
Legislation on
energy use in industries
Regulations on energy use in commercial and institutional
buildings
Promotion of energy efficiency in the road transport sector
Regulations on electrical appliances: energy efficiency
standards and energy labelling
Energy conservation legislation and institutional development for
energy efficiency promotion
This publication focuses on a review of regulatory measures established and implemented by ESCAP member countries for the purpose of achieving greater efficiency in energy use. Most countries have found it useful to pursue regulatory measures targeting specific economic sectors or activities and have aimed at presumed or assessed sectoral energy conservation potentials. The introductory overview offered in this chapter follows this conventional approach.
2.1 Legislation on energy use in industries
In many of the industrialized and industrializing countries, the manufacturing sector accounts for between 25 and 40 per cent of total energy consumption. Therefore, most energy conservation laws include regulations which aim at improving energy intensities in industry, particularly in the large scale energy intensive manufacturing processes.
In some countries energy conservation policies are laid down in energy development or energy conservation master plans. With official endorsement, such plans can become binding policy guidelines for the executive branch of Government. Establishing such plans is an important dimension for translating energy efficiency promotion policies into action. In Indonesia, Republic of Korea, Thailand, and Viet Nam, governments have established and periodically update such master plans.
2.1.1 Definition of "designated facilities", energy conservation goals and target energy intensities
In the terminology of legislation, larger energy intensive industries that are required to comply with specific regulations are referred to as "designated energy management factories", "designated facilities" or "key energy-using entities". Definitions differ between countries, depending on relative abundance or scarcity of the different energy resources. In most countries regulatory measures are applied to industries where annual consumption exceeds a certain specified threshold. Such regulations are found in China, Japan, Russian Federation, Thailand and Uzbekistan. In some other countries, such as the Republic of Korea, designated authorities have determined product or sector specific energy intensity ratios. In the Republic of Korea, regulatory measures are only applicable to industries where energy consumption exceeds the prescribed energy intensity targets. <return to top>
2.1.2 Definition of "designated authority"
Energy conservation regulations also define mandates and terms of reference of "designated authorities". The tasks given to designated authorities may include provision of advisory services and training, as well as overall programme supervision, possibly including on-site inspections aimed at ensuring compliance.
Some energy conservation laws are intentionally vague and do not identify the designated authority by name. In most of these cases it may be intended to specify such designation by way of ministerial order or similar instruction. Implementation and enforcement of an energy conservation law requires the establishment of an appropriate institutional infrastructure.
2.1.3 Designated measures for energy conservation in industries
Table 1.1.2 gives a summary overview of the regulatory measures applied to large scale industries in the different countries of the region. Typical energy conservation regulations aimed at achieving energy conservation in industry include prescription of some or all of the following measures:
a) Energy metering and record keeping: Energy conservation laws typically make internal measuring of energy consumption and separate record keeping a mandatory requirement. Such records may be inspected by representatives of designated authorities.
b) Periodical reporting on energy use: In most countries, designated facilities are obliged to prepare energy consumption/conservation reports for submission to designated authorities. Details pertaining to the content and the frequency of reporting are regulated in supplementary ministerial or administrative orders.
In some countries, administrative instructions/regulations include standard formats for energy consumption/conservation reporting. The reporting format used in Japan may be studied as an example.
The prescribed standard format forms an integral part of the Enforcement Regulations for the Law concerning the Rational Use of Energy, which were first published as Ordinance of the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) on 29 September 1979. As an example, the ordinance and its later amendments are included in Part Four of this publication. <return to top>
c) Designation of energy officers or energy managers: In some countries "designated entities" are required to appoint one or more "energy managers" to take charge of collecting the respective production, energy consumption or conservation data. The terms of reference of the energy managers would also include the preparation of the aforementioned periodical reports on energy use. Another essential task of energy managers would be the identification and initial assessment of potentials for energy saving and energy cost reduction. The designation of energy managers is mainly meant to be a tool of (self-)regulation.
In some countries (for example, Japan, Republic of Korea and Thailand) energy conservation laws are supplemented by Ministerial orders or similar administrative instructions which specify the required (minimum) professional qualification of energy managers. In Japan, the Energy Conservation Center of Japan (ECCJ) is the officially designated entity in charge of training and certification of energy managers. However, in some other countries, no regular training for energy managers has been established yet. In some situations, the terms of reference and qualifications of "energy managers" have remained undefined.
d) External energy auditors: In some countries regulations require that periodical energy audits be performed by external "energy auditors". In other countries, the costs of external energy audit services may be fully or partially subsidized by the government. In Thailand, for example, costs of a preliminary audit as well as costs of detailed assessments of energy conservation potentials (feasibility studies) can be subsidized by the Government through funding provided by the Energy Conservation Fund. In some states of India, however, the related costs are expected to be borne entirely by the regulated entities.
2.1.4 Discussion
Introduction of (mandatory) measures for promotion of energy conservation in industry can affect potentially conflicting interests of different groups. Depending on the specific provisions, private sector entities and business associations have often expressed their opposition to mandatory external energy auditing, especially in those cases where the process of licensing external auditors has not been very transparent and related costs are expected to be borne by designated entities. Business associations often express their preference for voluntary energy and environmental reporting schemes. The following points identify some of the issues which must be addressed in order to make legislative initiatives successful:
a) Confidentiality of data: Industrial sector entities that fall under energy conservation regulations have been concerned about the confidentiality of the business data required to be submitted to authorities. Among the countries included in this review, Japan appears to be the only country which specifically obliges the designated energy conservation authority to treat all information with appropriate confidentiality. Any officer found responsible for a contravention of this requirement may face a fine or imprisonment under the law. However, in all other countries regulations are far less explicit in this respect. <return to top>
b) Technical specialization and competence of designated authority: Private sector entities often reject the idea of preparing and presenting technical energy (consumption) reports to designated authorities which may (or may not) have the detailed technical expertise to provide any sector specific technical advice on potential (additional) energy saving opportunities.
c) Financial assistance: Some countries have used the energy conservation laws to also establish national "Energy Conservation Funds". Designated establishments may apply for grants and/or for loan financing from such funds to pay for energy audits and related advisory services. Costs of conducting detailed (pre-)feasibility studies on energy conservation investments may also be financially supported from such funds. In the absence of financial resources or support, many private sector entities are reluctant to take part in energy conservation projects.
d) Enforcement and penalties: Enforcement of regulatory measures for energy conservation in industry can be a complicated and controversial issue. However, in several countries regulations stipulate fines for non-compliance with reporting requirements. In some countries, intentional submission of false data or information also carries a penalty.
Not many studies have attempted to assess the impact of energy conservation regulations on the actual energy intensities in industry. Any attempt to conduct an empirical survey will probably face many practical difficulties. However, advocates of regulatory measures often draw attention to the fact that introduction of regulatory measures generates considerable awareness among industries, even if compliance is voluntary.
Detailed regulations on energy conservation in industry are in force in Japan and Republic of Korea. These regulations are described in detail in the country papers contributed by Akira Ishiyama and Mi-Chung Ahn. In recent years, there has been a gradual trend in some countries to ease or abolish some of the regulations as a part of greater liberalization of the economy. <return to top>
2.2 Regulations on energy use in commercial and institutional buildings
It is estimated that approximately 36 per cent of the world's primary energy is consumed in residential and commercial buildings. Energy consumption in buildings is generally high in industrialized countries, but comparatively low in the developing countries of Asia. However, over the past two decades, energy consumption in commercial and institutional buildings in Asia has grown rapidly, particularly in the urban metropolitan centres of the member countries of ESCAP.
Most energy used in buildings is in the form of electricity. Depending on climatic conditions, heating, cooling and lighting are essential purposes for which energy is required in buildings. There are considerable variations in the energy efficiency of buildings. Hence, regulatory measures on buildings appear important for effective promotion of energy efficiency. Worldwide, energy use in residential buildings is about twice that of commercial buildings. However, regulating energy use in residential dwellings involves many social and political issues and has proven to be difficult.
Regulations on energy use in buildings primarily focus on buildings constructed for commercial purposes (i.e.; office buildings, shopping centres, entertainment or sporting facilities) or for institutional use (i.e.; hospitals, educational facilities, exhibition centres, government offices, military facilities). The discussion of building regulations in this chapter is, therefore, limited to larger buildings constructed for commercial, office or residential purposes. Dwellings built for single family occupancy are not discussed in this chapter.
The discussion in this chapter refers to energy standards for buildings which may refer interchangeably to what also might be called codes, criteria, guidelines, norms, laws, protocols, provisions, recommendations, requirements, regulations or rules.
Energy consumption in buildings is a function determined by both building design and building use. The building design, including choice of location, structure and layout as well as choice of building materials and equipment predetermine to a considerable extent the quantity of energy required in later operation of the building. Efficiency of energy consumption in buildings is, however, also determined by the patterns of building use. Some regulatory measures aim at introducing a minimum energy efficiency standard for the design of new buildings; other measures are related to management of energy in building use. <return to top>
In some of the countries of the Asia and Pacific region the basic energy conservation laws include specific provisions on buildings or articles which enable designated authorities to issue related regulations. In China, Japan, Republic of Korea and Thailand, energy conservation laws include provisions relating to the construction sector. However, in these and other countries, the specific building regulations are issued separately, as energy consumption is only one of several factors of public interest in buildings. Other factors are issues such as structural safety, fire protection measures or restrictions on specific activities or building uses in designated areas (zoning of land use). Depending on the country, energy standards for buildings may be contained in one document, be part of another document (such as a general building code) or comprise several documents.
The upgrade of building designs for greater energy efficiency and lower energy consumption may involve additional building design efforts and/or higher initial material or construction costs. Developers or builders therefore sometimes tend to ignore the energy of buildings. The endeavors to reduce initial investment and construction costs to a minimum tend to prevail in situations in which
the developer has no intention to occupy the building. Buyers or tenants of buildings also tend to prefer buildings or rents to be priced low. Hence, higher than necessary recurrent costs of energy consumption are often the result of the disconnection of responsibilities for initial capital costs (owner/developer of building) and operating costs (buyer or tenant). The introduction of guidelines or minimum energy efficiency standards may improve or reduce the aforementioned efficiency gap.
In most countries building energy standards were initially introduced as voluntary standards. Some countries have converted voluntary standards into mandatory standards after their usefulness had been tested and confirmed. In most countries, building energy standards are only applied to construction of new buildings, although in some countries, such as Singapore, energy standards for designated buildings were are also retroactively applicable to existing buildings.
2.2.1 Definition of "designated buildings"
The definition of "designated buildings" varies from country to country. Some countries require buildings exceeding a certain size to comply with the energy standard. Regulations in other countries, such as Thailand, require buildings with an electricity consumption exceeding 1,000 kW to implement energy efficiency measures. In some countries, energy standards are only applied to selected energy consuming equipment such as air-conditioning or heating equipment and not to the building itself. <return to top>
2.2.2 Energy standards for designated buildings: prescriptive standards and performance standards
Two main types of standards are distinguished in the literature on building energy standards. "Prescriptive standards" prescribe the use of specific materials for selected components of a building. "Performance standards" typically focus on the building envelope. Performance standards calculate specific heat transfer values for the different materials which may be used in the roofing or the walls of a building. Under the overall thermal transfer value (OTTV) regulations buildings are required to be designed and built in a way which prevents aggregate heat gains for air-conditioned buildings in countries with tropical climates or heat losses for heated buildings in countries with temperate or cold climates to exceed specific permitted levels.
Policy approaches and substantive content of building energy regulations differ from country to country and depend on the characteristics of the local climate. In 1995, Republic of Korea developed and introduced a new building standard called the Energy Performance Index (EPI), replacing the performance standard regulating the total energy consumption. It takes into consideration three different climate zones in the Republic of Korea and consists of three main components: a) structure (heat transmission coefficient, window ratio and ceiling height); b) mechanical system (boiler efficiency, pump efficiency, fan centrifugal efficiency and heat recovery system efficiency); and c) electrical system (voltage stabilization and power factor improvement). Research to further develop EPI is continuing.
In Japan, the objective of the Law Concerning Rational Use of Energy is to specify the actions required for rational use of energy in factories, buildings and equipment, and other actions necessary for comprehensively promoting the rationalization of energy use, in order to ensure the efficient utilization of fuel resources. Most of the energy consumed in Japan is consumed in buildings. "Perimeter annual load" (PAL) and "coefficient of energy consumption" (CEC) formulas have been formulated to provide performance-based standards for commercial buildings. <return to top>
New Zealand has a performance based building code, one clause of which is concerned with energy efficiency. The latest revision (1996) implemented requirements for thermal insulation in the roof, wall and floor of the building, limited the window to wall ratio to 50 per cent unless additional analysis is undertaken, limited the lighting power density (e.g., office buildings to 15 W/m2), and required minimum levels of energy efficiency in domestic scale hot water systems. The New Zealand Energy Code does not deal with HVAC equipment. The revision has been designed to make a significant impact on raising commercial building energy efficiency levels. However, the choice of "good" designs still remains the prerogative of the designers and their clients.
In China, the largest energy use is for space heating in the northern parts of the country. The initial building energy conservation standard introduced in China related only to heating systems in new residential buildings (apartment blocks). On 1 July 1994 the Energy Conservation Design Standard on Building Envelope and Air Conditioning for Tourist Hotels came into effect. This sector-specific regulation can be assumed to have had a significant impact on efficiency of electricity use in the hotel industry.
In Mongolia, the building code relates to the following three areas: space heating, hot water use, and heat transmission coefficient for external walls and roofs. The permitted heat transmission coefficient for external walls is 0.4-0.9 W/m2. The Energy Conservation Company (ECC) of Mongolia conducts energy audits and it has provided its advisory service to one of the main hotels in the capital with a view to identify energy saving potentials and increase efficiency in energy use.
In Malaysia, building energy efficiency activities began in the early 1980s, when a series of energy audits were carried out in several buildings. Voluntary Guidelines for Energy Efficiency were launched in 1989. These guidelines cover aspects of building envelope, lighting systems, air-conditioning systems, electrical power distribution and energy management systems. Current efforts are towards development of energy efficiency standards. A lighting energy efficiency retrofit project carried out at the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia library has resulted in about 25 per cent savings in electricity consumption. With further retrofit of air-conditioning systems it is estimated that up to 50 per cent savings can be obtained. Calculations of the cost of retrofit and savings obtained show that the retrofit is very cost effective with a payback period of less than three years. <return to top>
In Thailand, energy standards for buildings focus on the OTTV of air-conditioned buildings, the maximum lighting load and the air-conditioning systems. The development of this standard follows models of other countries in South-East Asia. Part Four of this publication includes the Energy Conservation Promotion Act (B.E. 2535) (1992) of Thailand which provides the basis for regulating the control of energy use in designated buildings.
In Singapore, the Public Works Department (PWD) has been actively involved in energy conservation in buildings. In September 1979, a set of prescriptive energy standards was incorporated in the Building Control Regulations. PWD also published a Handbook on Energy Conservation in Buildings and Building Services to facilitate compliance with the energy standards by architects and engineers. The most prominent standard is the maximum OTTV of 45 W/m2 prescribed for air-conditioned building envelopes. All buildings constructed after 1979 are expected to comply fully with the energy standards. Buildings constructed before 1979 were upgraded to comply with the standards. PWD is currently reviewing the aforementioned handbook in collaboration with two universities in Singapore. The study team is exploring the possibility of introducing energy performance standards for building design based on energy consumption budgets. Such a performance standard is intended to complement the current prescriptive standards.
In the Philippines, the Department of Energy (DOE) established a Referral Code to the National Building Code, entitled Guidelines for Energy Conserving Design of Buildings and Utility Systems, which became mandatory for new building constructions starting in 1994.
In Indonesia, the Standard on Building Energy Conservation was issued in 1994, published under the title Method for Energy Conservation Design in Buildings. The standard covers lighting and air-conditioning systems as well as building energy management in air-conditioned and non-air-conditioned buildings. At present, compliance with building energy standards is voluntary in Indonesia.
In Pakistan, electricity demand for buildings has been growing at a rate of 14 per cent per annum. A Building Energy Code (BEC) was prepared by the Energy Conservation Centre of Pakistan (ENERCON) in 1990 and formally launched in 1992. The code calls for minimum performance standards for the building envelope, HVAC equipment and lighting. In Pakistan the building code is not mandatory.
Building energy standards are mostly implemented through the official approval of building designs prior to construction. <return to top>
2.2.3 Discussion of regulations on energy use in buildings
Among countries with tropical climates, energy standards for buildings are often comparable in the sense that they are based on or inspired by the standards developed by the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). Singapore has been a pioneer in setting standards for the building envelope and the appliances used in the building and enforced mandatory standards for both new and existing buildings as far back as 1979. Other countries have either voluntary standards or guidelines which some experts find inadequate or ineffective for reasons such as poor understanding of the standard, lack of human resources and incentives, unclear responsibilities, and poor coordination between the players.
In some countries, initiatives have been taken to put the standard into practice in government buildings with a view to create demonstration projects. Some governments have also supported the introduction of energy standards for buildings through various forms of advice or training, although a number of experts consider that additional efforts in this field are still needed.
In some countries there appears to be a move from prescriptive standards towards performance-based standards. In formulating standards it may not be advisable to seek an unrealistic degree of accuracy (e.g.; specific insulation thickness) because variations in the quality of workmanship and other uncalculated effects can cause significant performance differences.
As a part of the UNDP-funded Programme for Asian Co-operation in Energy and Environment (PACE-E) the ESCAP Secretariat organized a Regional Seminar on Energy Efficiency Standards for Commercial Buildings and Related Legislation, which was held in Bangkok, Thailand, 4-6 November 1996. Participants at this seminar discussed policies and strategies for introducing energy efficiency standards for buildings and formulated, inter alia, the following recommendations:
a) Diversity of building practices and climatic conditions should be accounted for in developing the standard;
b) The local standard should take into account the best appropriate technology for the local conditions;
c) Performance-based standards should strongly be considered as they offer the most flexibility over a variety of building types and design solutions, and permit the inclusion of new technologies as they develop;
d) Consensus is the most widely supported means of decision making in the standards development process; and
e) The standard should be supported by the results of research and development, demonstration projects and pilot schemes. <return to top>
2.3 Promotion of energy efficiency in the road transport sector
In many of the developing countries of the ESCAP region, the transport sector, and particularly road transport, accounts for fast growing shares in domestic energy and petroleum consumption. The growing energy requirements and consumption of the transport sector reflects the expansion of economic activity and structural changes in the modes of transportation. Transport needs grow with increases in economic activity and economic diversification.
Energy consumption in urban road transport and growing traffic congestion leads to urban air pollution. There are many policy measures, as well as regulatory measures, that can be taken to address this problem. However, most of these measures relate to economic incentives or disincentives with regard to individual vehicle ownership or use. Other measures, including energy pricing and the pricing of petroleum products, affect the choice of fuels, the choice of types of vehicles or types and capacity of engines. Finally, availability and quality of public transport systems can also greatly affect the energy intensity of urban transportation.1
In most of the countries in the Asia and Pacific region which have identified promotion of energy conservation as an important development objective, regulations related to energy efficiency of road or other forms of transport are not included in energy conservation laws. Only in Japan, Republic of Korea and the United States of America do energy conservation laws include provisions for implementation of regulatory measures for this sector. In both Japan and the United States, energy conservation laws have stipulated targets for energy efficiency improvement in motor vehicles.
In his paper "Alternative Legal Measures to Improve the Fuel Efficiency of Motor Vehicles", Adrian Bradbrook describes in detail the regulatory measures developed and applied in Japan and the United States of America. Both countries have large automobile industries which produce a great variety of highly fuel efficient, less fuel efficient, and fuel inefficient vehicles. In addition to providing information on the regulatory regimes which have been established by energy import dependent economies, Bradbrook's paper also discusses selected possibly useful measures, which could be considered by policymakers in developing countries. <return to top>
The Republic of Korea appears to be the first and only country in Asia which has introduced a mandatory fuel economy labelling scheme for motor vehicles. Readers interested in obtaining more detailed information on this scheme may contact the Energy Conservation Policy Division of the Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy in Seoul, Republic of Korea.
2.4 Regulations on electrical appliances: energy efficiency standards and energy labelling
Many of the developing countries in Asia have recognized the energy saving potentials that can be achieved if efficiency in newly manufactured and distributed appliances is improved. Demand for and consumption of electricity in the residential sector would grow at lower rates if the newly added stock of appliances coming into use has a higher efficiency and if aging appliances are increasingly replaced by more efficient products.
It has been observed that increased energy efficiency in electrical appliances occurs together with technological progress. However, most countries which have drawn up energy conservation laws have included in these laws provisions for the development of regulatory measures aimed at enhancing the energy efficiency of appliances. Today, more energy efficient products can be found in the market than ever before. However, less efficient and inefficient products are also available and frequently hold large market shares.
Minimum energy (efficiency) performance standards (MEPS) and energy labels for appliances are the two most frequently used tools of energy conservation programmes. Energy standards, if mandatory, aim at eliminating least efficient products from the market. Energy labelling programmes aim at increasing consumer awareness and seek to provide information to buyers/consumers on the otherwise invisible energy efficiency differentials. In some countries, energy labels have been designed to inform consumers of the different operating costs of an appliance, which may well be a parameter which ought to be considered in individual purchasing decisions.
Energy conservation laws in the following countries include provisions concerning improvement of energy efficiency in appliances: Australia, China, Japan, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Thailand, and United States. Regulatory measures on appliance energy efficiency standards and voluntary programmes have also been launched in Hong Kong, China and the Philippines. <return to top>
In a typical energy conservation programme, only the main electricity consuming appliances are targeted by regulatory measures. Energy conservation programmes seek to support the demand side management efforts of the utilities which aim in particular at a reduction of peak loads. Apart from residential lighting (which is not discussed in this chapter), energy conservation programmes are found to deal with refrigerators, air-conditioners and clothes washers. Other home appliances consume much less electricity or are not widely used and are, therefore not included in developing country energy conservation programmes. Only some industrialized countries, such as Japan, have established or initiated regulations aimed at reducing electricity consumption in other home appliances such as televisions, personal computers and video recorders/players. In his paper "Regulatory Framework Energy Conservation Legislation in Japan", Akira Ishiyama provides details on the respective national product standards.
Programmes focusing on energy standards address appliance manufacturers and engage them in a dialogue and consultation process with the authority designated to conduct product tests and authorized to issue appropriate licenses. Energy labelling programmes equally involve manufacturers and distributors, but are mainly targeting the consumers and their purchasing decisions.
Two articles in this publication discuss energy standards and labels. In her paper, Kristina Egan introduces energy standards of the Philippines and Thailand. In both countries, energy savings have been achieved through voluntary programmes. Kwisun Huh reviews the initial experiences with labelling programmes and discusses the first emerging results of empirical research which has been conducted to assess the impacts of labelling programmes. Both studies may be of interest to energy conservation lawmakers who are considering the expansion or replication of one or the other national programmes.
As an example to promote efficiency in electrical appliances through regulatory measures, the Electrical Products Act (1988) and the Electrical Products Regulation (1990) of South Australia are included in Part Four of this publication. Similar laws and regulations have been enacted in other Australian states, as well as in Japan, New Zealand, Republic of Korea and the United States.
Like other regulatory measures, energy standards for electrical appliances vary between countries. Testing protocols also differ. In recent years, the possibility of harmonizing testing protocols and procedures, and concepts of expanded national or regional recognition of selected national testing laboratories have been discussed at various sub-regional fora, including the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). <return to top>
2.5 Energy conservation legislation and institutional development for energy efficiency promotion
Most energy conservation laws include basic provisions which mandate designated authorities to perform specific tasks related to the implementation of the energy conservation policy and the enforcement of the law. In some cases, energy conservation laws authorize the creation of new specialized agencies which are assigned tasks such as: a) launching and implementing public awareness creation campaigns on sustainable energy use; b) provision of specialized technical advisory services for industries, commercial establishments or construction; c) training and certification of energy managers for industrial processes or commercial or institutional buildings; d) testing and certification of energy consumption in appliances, industrial manufacturing processes, motor vehicles or other energy conversion processes; and e) policy advisory services or implementation of national energy conservation programmes. Some energy conservation laws also provide for the establishment of Energy Conservation Funds and mandate the creation of the requisite entities to administer the collection, management and disbursement of such funds.
Adequate institutional development is indeed crucial for the successful implementation of energy conservation or energy efficiency programmes. The aforementioned tasks and functions need to be assigned to a variety of specialized public and private sector entities. While government agencies must retain all policy and control functions, delivery of advisory services, training and other measures may be delegated to statutory bodies or private sector firms.
Part Four of the publication includes the text of the Sustainable Energy Development Act (1995) of New South Wales, Australia, as an example of a special legislative act related to institutional development. In most of the other countries the Energy Policy or Energy Conservation Acts also include enabling sections for the development of the institutional infrastructure. In Japan, the Law Concerning Rational Use of Energy describes the mandate of the designated implementing authority - the Energy Conservation Centre of Japan (ECCJ). In the Republic of Korea, the law specifies the role of the Korea Energy Management Corporation (KEMCO). In other countries, the specific name of the designated authority is not mentioned in the law. This enables the competent ministerial authority to change or reassign functions between government bodies, without necessarily changing the law.
The pertinent policy issues related to the varying national strategies for institutional development in energy efficiency promotion were discussed in a recent ESCAP publication (Energy Efficiency - Energy Conservation and Efficiency Centres in Asia) published in 1997.
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1 The issues, problems and possible solutions to the energy-environment related aspects of urban transportation were discussed at an ESCAP Seminar, organized in May 1994 and hosted by the Centre of Urban Planning and Environmental Management of the University of Hong Kong. The proceedings of this seminar have been published by the Centre in 1996 under the title Energy, Transport and the Environment in Asia. <return to place in text>
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