III. PROSPECTS FOR YOUTH

A. Introduction

1. Issues for youth in Asia and the Pacific into the 21st century

Youth, as a distinct social group, are defined by the United Nations as persons between the ages of 15 and 24 years. According to that definition, youth constitute approximately one fifth of the total population of the ESCAP region. Integration and development of the full potential of youth carry a critical importance in the development of the region. The Jakarta Plan of Action for Human Resources Development in the ESCAP Region, adopted by the Commission in 1988 and updated in 1994, identifies youth as the priority target group of all human resources development efforts.

Issues affecting youth received worldwide attention in 1995 with the commemoration by the international community of the tenth anniversary of the International Youth Year: Participation, Development and Peace (1985). A special session of the United Nations General Assembly was convened in 1995 to review issues affecting youth. In concluding its deliberations on the subject, the General Assembly in December 1995 adopted resolution 50/81 containing the World Programme of Action for Youth to the Year 2000 and Beyond ("the World Programme of Action for Youth"). The building blocks of the World Programme of Action for Youth comprise 10 priority areas: education, employment, hunger and poverty, health, environment, drug abuse, juvenile delinquency, leisure-time activities, girls and young women, and the full and effective participation of youth in society and decision-making. The World Programme of Action for Youth contains proposals for action in each of these 10 priority areas and also identifies the possible actors, including governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and international institutions.

The present chapter aims to highlight issues from those 10 priority areas identified in the World Programme of Action for Youth that are expected to become central into the 21st century. Four priority areas of concern for youth in the Asia and the Pacific region were identified and discussed by senior youth affairs officials at the Asia-Pacific Meeting on Human Resources Development for Youth, 22-26 October 1996, Beijing, convened by ESCAP in collaboration with All China Youth Federation ("the Youth Meeting"). These areas, which have been selected from the 10 priority issues identified in the World Programme of Action for Youth, are education, health, employment and the participation of youth in society. The discussion of this chapter focuses on these four issues. It first reviews several issues that are expected to become increasingly important into the 21st century in each of the three sectors: education, employment and health. The chapter concludes with a section that provides general policy recommendations applying to all of the other three sectoral issues, and emphasizing the importance of participation of youth in society and responsibilities of the policy making bodies in the creation of an enabling environment through development and implementation of youth policies.

To provide a general background to the issue-oriented discussions in this chapter, some recent demographic trends are briefly reviewed. The global total of young people rose from 460 million in 1950 to 1.03 billion in 1995. This figure is projected to increase to 1.3 billion by the year 2025. The majority of youth live in developing countries, where that portion of the population is estimated to have increased from 768 million (81.5 per cent) in 1985 to 864 million (84.0 per cent) in 1995, and is projected to increase further to 89 per cent by the year 2025. As of 1995, over 60 per cent of the world's youth were estimated to be found in the developing countries of Asia and the Pacific (figure 1).

The annual growth rate of the youth population fell rapidly in most regions of the world from between 3 and 4 per cent in the late 1960s to between 1 and 2 per cent in the late 1980s. Even among the developing regions of the world, the average annual growth during the period 1985-1989 was 2 per cent, lower than the 2.8 per cent recorded in the previous five-year period. The youth population growth rate was projected to decline by 1995. East Asia in particular has seen a dramatic decline and the region experienced a negative growth rate in the youth population between 1990 and 1995 (Figure 2).

However, United Nations statistics for 1992 indicate that the youth population growth rate remained high in the South Asian subregion, standing at an estimated 2.5 per cent annually throughout the period between 1965 to 1990. The subregion also includes a few countries in which the youth population is growing at a rate of more than 3 per cent per annum, including Bangladesh (3.5 per cent) and the Islamic Republic of Iran (3.3 per cent). On average, the youth population constitutes approximately 19 per cent of the total population of the countries in the ESCAP region, higher than the total global youth population ratio which was estimated to be 17.8 per cent (1.03 billion) in 1995. Some countries in the ESCAP region have even larger youth population ratios, including Bangladesh (21 per cent), Indonesia (21 per cent), Thailand (21 per cent) and Viet Nam (20 per cent) as of 1995. China and the Republic of Korea dropped out of the list of above-20 per cent countries due to a decline in their birth rates in recent years.

Further, many countries of the region have national definitions of youth that cover a wider age range than the United Nations definition of 15 to 24 years. For that reason, according to the varying national definitions, youth sometimes constitute over 50 per cent of a total national population. In the case of Thailand, for example, because all those aged up to 25 years are considered as youth, that group comprises 52.29 per cent of the total Thai population. These demographic data add to the argument that human resource development for youth should be a priority in Asia and the Pacific.

The discussion of youth in this chapter, focusing on the four sectors of education, health, employment and the participation of youth in society, is based on the premise that youth are a positive force in society, whose potential should be fully developed. The special needs of some of the sub-groups of youth, especially those of vulnerable groups, however, should be duly recognized. Among the various sub-groups of youth, two deserve special attention in the context of the ESCAP region: girls and young women, and rural youth.

Girls and young women in many countries of the ESCAP region comprise one of the most vulnerable groups in society. As the World Programme of Action for Youth points out, "girls are often treated as inferior and are socialized to put themselves last, thus undermining their self-esteem. Discrimination and neglect in childhood can initiate a lifelong downward spiral of deprivation and exclusion from the social mainstream." Young women are especially likely to suffer from long-entrenched discrimination, practices and habits. On the one hand, young women receive little or no return for their huge contributions to both the economy and society. On the other hand, young women are often denied the same opportunities as men for training and paid employment, and so are prevented from maximizing their individual development and participation in society. Fundamental gender bias, which is deeply rooted in many societies of the region, negatively affects young women in particular; and this has strong implications for girls and young women with regard to the accessibility of opportunities and participation in society in general. The World Programme of Action for Youth notes that "one of the most important tasks of youth policy is to improve the situation of girls and young women".

The majority of the youth population in the region is made up of young rural people whose roles in the development of their societies are particularly important. Simultaneously, the problems that rural youth face are often more acute than those which confront their urban counterparts because of the urban-rural gap in development which is predominant in many countries. In many ways, rural youth in the ESCAP region are one of the most disadvantaged sectors of the population as a result of the general situation found in the countryside. This situation is often characterized by poverty, exploitation, lack of access to land, illiteracy, lack of stable work, isolation, unsanitary conditions and little participation in the decision making processes which affect the lives of the people themselves. In most of the developing countries of the region, the majority of young people will continue to live in rural areas for the foreseeable future.

The other aspect of the rural youth issue has to do with the massive urbanization process now occurring in many countries of the region. Rural youth are being uprooted from their families and communities because rural-urban migration is more likely to take place among youth than any other population group. The ratio of the youth population living in urban areas is steadily increasing and, according to United Nations projections, will reach 53.2 per cent by the year 2000 (compared with 44.8 per cent in 1985 and a projected 48.2 per cent in 2025 for the entire world population). The issues affecting rural youth which stem from urban migration thus warrant special attention. In many countries of the ESCAP region, rapid economic growth has created socio-cultural problems that have impacted heavily on youth from disadvantaged and low income groups. The desire to emulate the lifestyles of the urban "new-rich" population, who have benefited from the economic boom, has resulted in an erosion of cultural values and the uprooting of youth from their families and traditional values. Such factors have exacerbated the problems associated with urban migration of youth, including drug addiction, prostitution and HIV/AIDS.

Obviously, individual youth can belong to a number of sub-groups; for example, a youth can be "female", "rural" and "disabled" at the same time. Therefore, the significance of recognizing sub-groups lies in comprehending the special needs of a particular youth group, and especially those of vulnerable groups, and not with dividing youth into several categories. Rather than taking up the needs and issues of sub-groups of youth in separate sections, this chapter intends to pay attention to them throughout its discussion.

B. Education

1. Enhancing access and quality

The World Programme of Action for Youth lists three main concerns regarding the current systems of education in the world. The first is the inability of many parents in developing countries to send their children to school because of local economic and social conditions. The second concerns the paucity of educational opportunities for the more disadvantaged sub-groups of youth: girls and young women, migrants, refugees, displaced persons, street children, indigenous youth minorities, young people in rural areas and young people with disabilities. The third concerns the quality of education, its relevance to gainful employment and its usefulness for assisting young people in the transition to full adulthood and active citizenship, as well as to nurture their idealism and creative thinking so that they may become change agents in creating their own future.

The Jakarta Plan of Action on Human Resources Development also emphasizes the need for strengthening education and training as the most critical process for increasing the productivity of human resources. The proposals for action contained in the Jakarta Plan of Action on Human Resources Development embody a comprehensive view of education, encompassing the formal education system at all levels as well as lifelong education in the form of adult and continuing education in non-formal settings. Training is similarly broadly conceived to include skills development through post-school vocational and technical training, on-the-job training and community-based training. Broad-based training efforts are essential to meeting today's rapidly developing technology and changing needs of society.

2. Basic education

Basic education is important since it largely defines the quality of life of youth, and the human life cycle requires that basic competencies and life skills be acquired at an early age. According to United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) statistics, global school enrolment expanded rapidly during the 1960s and the 1970s at an average annual rate of 3.7 per cent, followed by a slowdown to 1.1 per cent during the 1980s. In the ESCAP region, all the developed and most of the higher income developing countries of Asia and the Pacific have either achieved or come close to achieving universal primary education. But for the poorer countries of the region, much requires to be done before the target can be realized. For example, as of 1992, the gross primary enrolment ratios for Afghanistan and Pakistan were only 31 and 44 per cent respectively of all primary school-aged children; and in Afghanistan, the ratio has dropped by 3 per cent since 1980. The asymmetry of the data broken down by gender for primary school enrolment is a critical issue, particularly in South Asia (see Figure 3). The gross enrolment rates for girls in primary education in 1992 were 16, 30 and 87 per cent below those for boys in Afghanistan, Pakistan and Nepal, respectively, although the gap has closed by 12 per cent in Afghanistan and 15 per cent in Nepal since 1980. The gender imbalance as well as the general levels of the primary school enrolment ratios are also problems in some countries of other subregions; for example, in Papua New Guinea, the male-female primary enrolment gap stood at 13 per cent in 1992 compared with 15 per cent in 1980. In the Lao People's Democratic Republic, the gap expanded from 19 per cent in 1980 to 30 per cent in 1992.

3. Literacy levels

The prevailing education level of the adult population represents the culmination of past investments in education. In countries that have previously had low levels of investment in basic education as a percentage of national income or per child, any policy commitment to pursue rapid improvement in the overall educational level requires investment in adult education, particularly literacy programmes.

While most countries in the ESCAP region have achieved considerable success in raising literacy levels, some have made limited headway in this regard, particularly in South Asia. Although the adult literacy rate in South Asia rose from 46.6 to 50.2 per cent between 1990 and 1995, it is still significantly lower than either the average 83.6 per cent for other developing countries in the region, or the average of 73.4 per cent for all developing countries (see table 1 for country details). The most urgent issue that requires attention regarding the literacy situation of the South Asian subregion is gender imbalance. In 1992, the literacy rate of adult women in South Asia was only 53 per cent of the male population, which translates into literacy rates of only 37 per cent for women aged between 15 and 24 years. In fact, gender imbalance in the levels of literacy is not limited to South Asia, but is also found in some countries of Indochina and the Pacific, including Cambodia, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. Given the important role of young women, and particularly mothers, as the prime educators of future generations, an improvement in the situation is urgently required.

4. Quality of education

The issue concerning quality of education has become increasingly important. "Quality" of education for youth may require attention to several different levels of issues. Four different aspects of "quality" are discussed as follows. First, at the most basic level, quality of existing education is a concern in many countries in view of the persistent problems of drop-out and repetition. The poor quality of teaching staff, physical environment and teaching materials often discourages students from regular attendance at school and serves to increase drop-out rates. It has been widely observed in the ESCAP region that national education programmes concentrate on enrolment figures and fail to implement remedies for absenteeism, drop-outs and students repeating their grades. According to United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) statistics, the percentage of children reaching grade 5 in 1990 in South Asia was: Afghanistan, 43 per cent; Pakistan, 48 per cent; and Sri Lanka, 92 per cent. In order to tackle both the quantitative and the qualitative challenges of attaining universal primary education, more resources need to be geared toward primary schooling. In that regard, India has announced plans to quadruple spending on primary education over the five years from 1996 to 2000, while increasing the budget for higher education by 50 per cent. The numeracy of the general population in particular has been suggested by many development studies as a prerequisite for economic development.

A second aspect of concern related to quality is the efficiency and effectiveness of the education system in providing adequate productive manpower to meet the requirements of the rapid socio-economic and technological changes taking place in the region. Throughout the ESCAP region, and particularly in South Asia, external inefficiency is reflected in high unemployment rates among the educated. Inefficiency sometimes takes the form of "mismatch" between qualification of workers and the types of work opportunities available to them. For example, tertiary-educated workers are sometimes employed in jobs that do not require their qualifications.

Under the present rapidly changing needs of the labour market, workers have to be equipped with marketable skills that can be readily acquired. Advances in technology and communications, coupled with demand for improved productivity, present new challenges and new opportunities for employment. Young people are among the most severely affected by these developments. In that regard, close links with, and direct involvement of, the private sector in skills training have proven to be effective. Through the development of close links with the employers, the mismatch of skills in labour supply and demand could be effectively mitigated through reducing the time lag between the education and training of the potential labour force and the demand of the labour market.

Further, rapidly changing technology and thus changing demand for skills require preparation of young people for multiple careers, which may be quickly adjustable in accordance with market demands as well as their own choice of lifestyles. Such flexibility most likely requires education far beyond basic literacy and numeracy, and may be made possible by providing young people with a solid foundation of self-learning capability. However, such need for further education may not automatically be translated into mandatory secondary education for everyone. Conventional secondary education may not be relevant for certain sections of the population and thus perceived rightly by the parents as well as the young people themselves as carrying a great opportunity cost. Certain types of further education and training for specific target groups of youth may be better provided through non-conventional types of modality and actors, outside of formal secondary and higher education. For example, entrepreneurship development and specific training for self-employment would become increasingly important, given the labour market situation as discussed in the next section. Such training may be provided as part-time training for out-of-school, working young people. Other types of continuing education may be provided through distance education and community-based learning groups.

A third important aspect of the quality of education, quite apart from its relevance in the workplace, is its role in empowering young people in the region. Education is the key to establishing and reinforcing democracy and in promoting effective leadership.

It is generally accepted that democratic governance relies on three major conditions. The first is for society to have a base of well-established political institutions; the second is to have a body of citizens who possess a mature understanding of the principles of democracy; and the third is to have capable and responsive leadership. Educated young citizens and workers have the skills to make democratic institutions function effectively, to meet the demands of a more sophisticated workforce, and to work towards building a better society.

Education empowers individuals because it opens up avenues for communication that would otherwise be closed, expands personal choice and control over one's environment, and is necessary for the acquisition of many other skills. It gives people access to information through both print and electronic media, and equips them to cope better with work and family responsibilities. It strengthens their self-confidence to participate in community affairs and influence political issues. Education gives disadvantaged youth the tools they need to move from exclusion to full participation in their society. It provides girls and young women, who are traditionally marginalized from the mainstream of development, with the knowledge and skills to function on an equal basis with their male colleagues.

Aside from general education, the education of youth in the processes of governance and the rights and responsibilities of citizenship serves to instill a strong sense of commitment of young people to the public interest, democratic principles and civic responsibility. Education in democratic processes through the demonstration effect of participatory institutions within the learning environment, such as student representative bodies, student parliaments and student participation in school administration, are useful means of inculcating an understanding by young people of the principles of democratic governance. Further, training in such areas as independent thinking, critical judgement, effective communication and consensus-building, are essential elements for the preparation of young people for effective participation in public affairs. Such training equips young people with the necessary foundation to function effectively in leadership positions.

Traditional approaches to education in the region, which emphasize learning by rote, are generally not conducive to the development of the above skills. It is time for governments in the region to consider incorporating new approaches to the educational curricula to ensure that the knowledge and skills acquired by young people can be put to effective use in promoting democracy and responsible citizenship.

Fourth, education for youth should aim at nurturing new values for them to live their adult lives in the globalizing world. Youth of today need to grow up as global citizens, no matter in which corner of the earth they are born. They need to learn to respect different cultures, religions and ethnicities and be tolerant towards differences. Likewise, young people should be encouraged to consider a broad range of possibilities in selecting their own futures, including their career options and lifestyles, and not be bound by conventional values sometimes imposed by the existing formal education systems. Existing formal education systems in Asia and the Pacific, even the most successful, may be critically reviewed in that they often pre-select "elites" of the society at a young age and inculcate in them a narrow range of possible patterns of "success" in life. Such conventional value systems often discourage young people from living in their own communities, particularly in rural areas, and leave them to compete over a narrow range of occupational options in urban areas. Given that the existing trends of massive urbanization and insufficient formal employment opportunities are expected to increase in the next century, such a narrow value system is nothing but harmful. Education in the future should enable young people to liberate themselves--their ideas, values and options for career and lifestyles--rather than tying them down with a limited range of possibilities.

5. Summary and policy recommendations

In summarizing the above discussion, it may be useful to consider the major actors in education into the 21st century. It would be important to recognize the continued primary responsibility of the governments in providing educational opportunities for the young people. Particularly in terms of improving access to basic education, the formal primary school will continue to be the principal vehicle for primary education under the responsibility of the governmental authority. However, in view of the resource constraints faced by the governments of low income countries, other complementary non-formal and flexible approaches are required in ensuring universal primary education. In terms of improving access to primary education, two examples are community-based approaches aimed at enhancing educational understanding and support of parents and other caretakers, and "second chance" primary education for out-of-school children and youth.

Reflecting an increasing need for a variety of educational opportunities to meet specific needs of different groups of youth as discussed above, those provided by non-state actors, including the NGO and private sectors, will become important. In terms of job-related education and skills training, involvement of the private sector will become increasingly important given the quickly changing labour market demand. Successful examples of countries in South-East Asia, for example, prove that involvement of the private sector in training programmes also helps to ensure the employment of graduates. In expanding the range of available continuing education, the further development of a variety of distance education programmes would provide opportunities for out-of-school youth. Governmental authorities should appropriately recognize the roles of these non-state actors in education and try to increase collaboration with them and/or facilitate their activities rather than obstructing them with bureaucratic red tape. Further, with regard to the evolution of education that touches upon deeper values, civil society in general might usefully play a greater role.

C. Employment

Tackling youth unemployment

1. Youth unemployment

Youth unemployment and under-employment are global problems, being part of the need to create employment opportunities for all citizens. However, there are several reasons for the higher unemployment levels among youth compared with other age groups. Unemployment in the ESCAP region is very high among youth, with estimates placing youth unemployment on average four times higher than non-youth unemployment (figure 4); although considerable concern has also been expressed in recent years about the rising level of unemployment among the better educated population. Among youth, unemployment affects both the educated and the uneducated, suggesting that the problem is a shortage of employment opportunities.

The factors that are specific causes of youth unemployment, in addition to those factors that create general unemployment include:

(i) A mismatch between the education and skill levels of young entrants to the labour market and the requirements of employers. In a number of developing countries, one problem is the high drop-out rate from primary and secondary education, which leads to an unskilled workforce that does not meet the requirements of prevailing technology. Another problem is the "overeducation" of youth in the social sciences and the scarcity in technical training opportunities, or poor links between such technical training and labour-market needs.

(ii) Relatively high minimum wage levels, particularly in developed countries and in the Pacific subregion, which discourage employers from hiring young new labour market entrants.

(iii) Discrimination against youth in recruitment because employers value experience, proven skills and seniority.

The crisis of youth unemployment leads also to a crisis of opportunities for young people independently to acquire the minimum means for accommodation and housing necessary for setting up families and for participating in society. The early age of marriage prevailing in many countries of the region, where nearly 80 per cent of women and 40 per cent of men in South Asia, and some 50 per cent of women and 30 per cent of men in South-East Asia are married by the age of 24, has potentially serious economic implications with regard to youth unemployment in such households.

Further, unemployment creates a wide range of social ills that have damaging effects on young people, including the lack of skill development, low self-esteem, marginalization, impoverishment and the wasting of enormous human resources. Such problems have become particularly serious in urban unemployment in many developing countries of the ESCAP region, because urban unemployment victimizes rural youth migrants first and brings added insecurity, rootlessness and frustration to this vulnerable sub-group. Young people who are less educated and less skilled than their urban counterparts are uprooted from the traditional system of support; consequently, they are exposed to the lowest ranks of the industrial hierarchy and have little say in matters affecting their working life. In fact, they make up the sub-group that has become the most adversely affected by mechanization and automation.

2. Youth in the growing labour force

The size of the labour force is expanding in most developing countries of the region. Only in a few ESCAP countries, most notably China, Singapore and Thailand, will the size of the youth labour force decrease over the next two decades. For the rest of the region, it is expected to increase from an average of 2.1 per cent per annum in the period 1955-1985 to 2.3 per cent per annum between 1985 and 2015. The number of youth entering the labour force will increase sharply in countries with high fertility, such as Bangladesh, Pakistan and the Philippines; the opposite will occur in some countries, such as the Republic of Korea, Singapore and Thailand, based on existing trends; while the region's overall labour force is projected to approximately double over the next 30 years.

This has strong implications for the youth labour market situation. According to International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates, more than 100 million new jobs will have to be created in the world within the next 20 years in order to provide suitable employment for the growing number of young people in the economically active populations of the developing countries. Among other sub-groups, the situation of girls and young women, as well as of young people with disabilities, refugee youth, displaced persons, street children, indigenous and migrant youth, and minorities, warrants urgent attention. The problem of employment has worsened in recent years and has affected developing countries the most. The disturbing fact is that economic growth is not always accompanied by expansion in employment opportunities. In that regard, the Jakarta Plan of Action on Human Resources Development advocates policies on labour-utilizing investment, including those policies which support informal sector activities and small-scale and cottage industries, pointing out the importance of promoting self-employment and entrepreneurship. In addition to the provision of suitable education and skills training to meet the needs of the labour market, it is necessary to emphasize a labour utilization policy based on the current labour situation of the region. Further, support programmes for emerging entrepreneurs, through provision of small-scale credit as well as skills training and management and marketing advisory services, should be provided at the grass-roots level to encourage self-employment of young people.

3. Concern over child labour

Apart from the concern over insufficient employment opportunities for youth, there is a mounting concern for some 250 million children in the world "who often work in exploitative and hazardous conditions and face injury, illness and even death." (ILO/97/25 Press release). Asia has the largest number of child workers, which is supposed to be approximately 61 per cent of the global total. The international community gathered together in Oslo, Norway, in October 1997 to draw up a strategy for combating, and ultimately eliminating, child labour through legislative, educational measures as well as through social mobilization. The concern is presently focused on removal of child labour in its most intolerable forms, including bonded child labour, children working under conditions of slave-like practices, children in prostitution, the use of children in drug trafficking and the production of pornography. Among other hazards, since child labour robs children of their right to education so that they remain unskilled, their vulnerability in the labour market is likely to continue into the latter stages of their lives as adolescents and young adults.

4. Summary and policy recommendations

Past experience has shown that economic growth does not automatically translate into increased demand for labour. With the recent financial crisis and economic downturns affecting a number of countries in the region, unemployment has become an even more serious problem. Again, particularly the unskilled young job seekers are likely to be hit the hardest by this situation. Unemployed or underemployed out-of-school youth are under tremendous psycho-social stress, which often results in violence and other delinquent behaviours including drug abuse. Facing economic difficulties, there is a concern that more children and youth are lured into commercial sex industry and other illegal activities. In particular, those rural youth who have migrated to the urban areas without successful employment opportunities are left in isolation from the traditional family and community support system. Under this situation, Governments should pay serious attention to encouraging labour utilizing investments, including in their efforts to promote foreign direct investment. In particular, investment and job creation in secondary cities and rural communities must be given support through tax incentives and other policy measures.

Further, there should be support for young entrepreneurs, particularly those who are based in rural communities. Facing severe job situations into the 21st century, there needs to be encouragement for young people to choose self-employment as an alternative career to formal sector employment. As mentioned above, credit provision and advisory services as well as other incentives may be provided through local government and other community-based organizations. Governments should provide support to rural youth so that they do not migrate into urban areas without good prospects of employment and participation in productive activities. There should be an effort on the part of the Government to coordinate with local government offices to provide up-to-date information on the situation of the labour market in the big cities to rural youth gap and their parents. In this regard, the Governments must be aware of the fact that young people are likely to be influenced by the mass media. In its information provision, the Governments must utilize the available mass media as well as new communication technology, including Internet, to effectively communicate its messages to young people.

D. Health

1. The sexual health needs of youth

The most significant trends in the health of youth in the region, affecting their social development prospects, are in the area of reproductive health and sexuality. Hence it is on these issues that this section will focus.

Today, adolescents increasingly enter into sexual relations without much knowledge of sexuality, reproduction or contraception and with little emotional preparation. They lack access to appropriate advice and services and run the risk of unwanted pregnancies, sexually transmitted diseases including HIV and exploitation. This reality has become a subject of concern in many national and international fora. Adolescent sexuality, reproductive health and rights feature prominently in the Programme of Action endorsed at the International Conference on Population (1994). Yet, adolescents are neglected in sexual and reproductive health policies and programmes in many countries in Asia.

Improving the sexual and reproductive health of adolescents is paramount but the obstacles are many. Firstly, the notion that teaching adolescents about sexuality and offering them contraceptive services will promote more sexual activity is widespread and causes much controversy. Consequently, governments are reluctant to provide sexual and reproductive health services. Non-governmental organizations have had to spearhead the work, but due to their limited scope and capacity, these are usually unable to initiate such activities on a wide scale or include a comprehensive set of services. Secondly, most initiatives have had a narrow focus and have been set up to deal with the biological aspects of reproduction, leaving out gender roles and issues such as decision-making and communication. Thirdly, relevant research data are largely missing, making it difficult to initiate innovative programmes or replicate successful examples and influence decision makers to take action.

2. Risks and consequences

(a) Pregnancy and childbirth

In Asian countries, fertility outside marriage is not common and fertility rates are thus correlated fairly closely with marriage. In countries with early marriage such as Pakistan and Bangladesh, fertility at young ages is high. Regardless of whether pregnancy takes place in, or outside of, marriage, there are serious biomedical hazards, especially for adolescents below 17 living in poor conditions and where access to health services are inadequate. The first birth to any woman carries greater risk than subsequent ones, but especially for the adolescent. Her risk may be compounded by her lack of experience, knowledge and resources, and social and familial support, compared to an adult woman. Too early pregnancy increases the risk of maternal and child morbidity and mortality, as well as the likelihood of having too many children too close together. The risks in early adolescence are especially high. At menarche girls have approximately 4 per cent more to grow in height and 12 - 19 per cent more in pelvic growth. They are at greater risk of complications such as obstructed labour and death. Pregnancy-related deaths are the main cause of death for 15-19 year-old women worldwide.

These risks apply to a married or unmarried girl but, in addition, the trend toward more unprotected sexual behavior prior to marriage has given rise to increased risks of induced abortion, often in hazardous circumstances, and sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV. Problems of chronic morbidity and infertility and even death face the young person who is not protected. The problems of early childbearing are not only biomedical; they also reduce educational and economic opportunity, especially for the young mother, leading often to inadequate parenting because of immaturity of the young mother and father. As a consequence, this may damage the child and increase the likelihood of an adolescent pregnancy occurring in the next generation. This both perpetuates poverty and contributes to uncontrolled population growth.

Adolescent women are a large proportion of first marriages and first births in developing countries. However, access to information and services to prevent unwanted and too-early pregnancy is the exception rather than the rule. It is often mistakenly believed that information and the provision of contraception with counseling will lead to promiscuity, whereas evidence suggests the opposite. Furthermore, the effective prevention of pregnancy is the best way to reduce resorting to abortion, a common goal in all societies.

(b) Abortion

Because adolescents and young people are more likely to hide a pregnancy, are unwilling or unable to seek appropriate health care, wait longer in the gestation period to get help and are more desperate not to have a baby, induced abortion, or pregnancy termination, generally presents a greater risk to the health and life of the adolescent than to an adult woman. Adolescents may try to self abort or go to unqualified people in clandestine and dangerous circumstances, even when they might have had legal access. Information from many sources suggest that self abortion, or seeking abortion from an unqualified practitioner, is a choice for a pregnant unmarried adolescent.

In most of the developing world, abortion legislation is highly restrictive but, even in countries with relatively liberal laws, impediments to service include: screening procedures; the need for parental consent; lack of confidentiality; and requirements as to where the abortion may take place, who may perform it, how many doctors must approve of the procedure, and its cost. All these will deter adolescents from safe abortion. Because of lack of knowledge of, access to and ability to use contraception, adolescents are more prone to unwanted pregnancy than adult women. Regardless of legal status, women who want abortions will seek to have them. One can only guess at the numbers of abortions among adolescents where access to legal abortion is difficult or prohibited, let alone the morbidity and mortality rates resulting from it, which are often unmeasured and unreported. Abortion mortality is estimated to be about 70,000 women globally per year.

A deeply hidden problem, but one for which there is very little information from reliable sources, is the problem of infanticide. Many adolescents, unable to procure abortions, will hide the pregnancy and often childbirth itself, but in desperation and fear of the consequences will abandon or sometimes kill the baby, a practice know as "baby dumping". The psychological impact of this on the girl, whether she is apprehended or not, is likely to be highly damaging.

3. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) and HIV infection resulting in AIDS

The young person who has sexual relations is not only at risk of unintended pregnancy, but both she and her partner are at risk of numerous sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including HIV resulting in AIDS. The awareness of STDs as a major threat to public health has increased dramatically since the early 1980s as a result of changes in epidemiology, increasing knowledge of the serious medical sequelae and the advent of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Despite the growing importance of this issue, only limited resources are devoted to prevention and control. Adolescents are especially vulnerable because of high risk behavior, greater biological susceptibility to certain STDs and their sequelae, limited access to STD treatment facilities, and the fact that primary prevention is the only effective form of control for HIV and other STDs. The World Health Organization has reported that one in 20 adolescents and young people contract an STD each year. The most common among adolescents are gonorrhea, chlamydia, syphilis, herpes, genital warts and HIV.

Among sexually active young people, STDs are most frequent in those who are youngest; and they appear to be increasing throughout the world, although diagnosis and reporting is poor. Highest rates for notifiable STDs are generally observed in the 20-24 year age group, followed by the 15-19 and 25-29 year olds. However, in nearly all parts of the world, the peak age of infection is lower in girls than boys. In many countries, 60 per cent of all new HIV infections are among 15-24 year Old, with a female to male ration of 2 to 1. An analysis of reported AIDS data from several African and Asian countries suggests that young women under 25 account for nearly 30 per cent of female AIDS cases and young men for approximately 15 per cent of male cases. AIDS is spreading rapidly throughout the world and moving into the younger population. About half of all HIV infections have occurred in those under 25. The largest number of infections is in sub-Saharan Africa, but the biggest increase recently has been in Latin America and South and South-East Asia.

Among the groups most vulnerable to STDs are young people of both sexes who are engaged as sex workers. Many are literally forced into this form of work and others choose to do it in situations of extreme economic hardship or in the absence of family or care givers. Both are likely to be patronized by men who, in most developing societies, have more sexual partners than women and are thus more likely to become infected and to infect their young "clients".

The advent of AIDS through HIV infection has brought immense new risks and challenges to society. The combined facts that AIDS is incurable, lethal and associated with sexual behavior, and that there is an indeterminate time between HIV infection and death from AIDS, has made it an especially sensitive subject. Young people are the last to be adequately informed or provided with services to protect them from harm.

4. Sexual Abuse and Exploitation

Sexual abuse (rape and incest) and sexual exploitation (trafficking, pornography and prostitution) of children and adolescents are prevalent practices in many ESCAP countries. Large- scale child prostitution has been identified in many countries of Asia. Brothel- and bar-based prostitution are prevalent, although in some countries such as Philippines, street prostitution is more common. Child pornography, though less common, is also prevalent, particularly in Japan and Thailand. Trafficking of children for sexual purposes across borders is also rampant in the region.

Reports indicate that young persons are lured into the sex trade by the age of 12-13 years and are likely to leave their place of origin from 13 years onwards. Social and economic conditions in the region are the foundation from which the commercial sexual exploitation of children grows. The generally low status of girls and women and their limited opportunities to secure education and employment also leave them extremely vulnerable to sexual exploitation. The growth in sex tourism in many countries in the last few decades is another contributing factor. Children and adolescents are sold into the sex trade by families or friends, sometimes knowingly, and sometimes through the mistaken belief that the children will become domestic servants or otherwise earn money for the family. Sometimes the children are kidnaped, trafficked across borders or from rural to urban areas, and moved from place to place so they effectively "disappear".

Sexual exploitation of children greatly affects their development, in relation to:

Physical development, including the overall health, coordination, strength, vision and hearing;

Cognitive development, including literacy, numeracy, basic cultural knowledge, vocational skills, and other knowledge required to live a reasonably successful life;

Emotional development, including adequate self esteem, family attachment, and feelings of love and acceptance, necessary to establish and maintain family ties as an adult; and

Social and moral development, including a sense of group identity, ability to cooperate with others, distinction of right from wrong, respect for laws, respect for the property and person of others, and other capacities needed to live successfully within a social context.

5. Action to promote the sexual health of young people

For young people to be able to develop fully and to protect their health, a friendly environment in which equity between the sexes is valued, and in which young people are given the support and opportunities they need to exercise their capacities is required, and in which information, counseling and other services can be provided in a confidential manner by people whom they trust and who are empathetic to their needs. Despite the fact that myths persist that knowledge is a danger to young people, evidence suggests that giving young people knowledge and opportunities for protection through services make them more, not less responsible. For adults to help the young, especially with regard to subjects such as sexuality, they must be confident of their own knowledge and comfortable with such subjects. However, few people, including many who work in the health and education sectors, are confident. Fear breeds misunderstanding and curtails communication, while sharing knowledge opens the way for growth. There are blockages in our systems of interaction with the young. Below are some of the actions which can be taken to overcome major obstacles. A useful way to develop action using a multisectoral approach is to review the status of adolescent health, adolescent behaviour and policies and programmes currently available to meet needs and prevent problems.

6. Enhancing young people's knowledge and skills

Young people are rarely provided with adequate knowledge about their own development, especially in regard to sexuality, the changing human relationships which take place during adolescence, and the benefit to boys and girls of equity between the sexes. They need to develop their capacity to communicate and make plans and decisions during a time of life in which their own autonomy is increasing. They need knowledge about appropriate exercise, rest and nutrition and the special needs of young women. They need to know how to protect themselves against illness and injury including the consequences of drugs, sexual abuse and exploitation, and how to prevent pregnancy, STD and HIV infection. In much of the world, young people lack specific information about how to make use of existing services. They often do not know what is available, where it is, how to use it, what will happen when they get there, what it will cost, whether it will be confidential, private or painful, what will follow and, perhaps most important, whether they will be welcome.

7. Youth-friendly services

Health and social services are all too often geared towards adults rather than young people. They do not meet basic needs of accessibility, confidentiality and low cost. They are often not linked with each other. For example, a family planning service which accommodates adolescents needs to be accessible to both sexes, and it needs to be closely linked, if not integrated, with an STD service, as well as with maternal health care. Services in one sector are frequently inadequately linked with interventions in other sectors. Furthermore, the provision of information, education and communication to young people in general is rarely linked with the health services locally available. By and large, young people either do not use services which exist or come later when help is more difficult. Their experience is often a negative one, and word of mouth keeps other youngsters away. Health and social services, therefore, need to be accessible to young people to promote health, and especially to intercept problems at an early stage for human, health and economic reasons.

8. Peer education and counselling

Peer education and peer counselling are two ways to assist young people in obtaining the help they need. Young people are widely used to help meet the information requirements of other young people as they are more likely not to reprimand them for their questions, and may well be more understanding of the need for information than adults. To do this well, however, requires a partnership with adults, initially, to help obtain and provide sound information from reliable sources, and for support to the young people providing such help, since they may be faced with situations which require more than straightforward information. Peer counselling is harder to achieve, since it requires special training in counselling and psychological skills, adequate knowledge of adolescent needs, ways to meet these needs and how to know when to refer to others. This requires training, supervision and above all continuing support, since it can be a stressful and very demanding task.

9. Prevention of sexual abuse and exploitation of children

There are four levels of potential actions that can be considered: primary prevention; secondary prevention; tertiary prevention; and rehabilitation. Primary prevention of sexual exploitation and abuse of children and adolescents involves promoting health development and the establishment of healthy lifestyles. The main features of this level of prevention includes specific policies, the provision of information through a variety of channels, and education. The information can be given by means of one-way channels of communication, such as radio, television, cartoons, magazines, videos and films or two-way communication - in person or by telephone. The latter channel of communication is more effective since it permits the young person to ask questions and explore issues of special individual significance.

In secondary prevention, the aim is to identify and reduce the risk of children and adolescents from becoming more vulnerable to sexual abuse and exploitation, by providing basic services, such as education, health care, shelter, employment and capital for income generating activities, to especially disadvantaged families, women and children. Secondary prevention is only effective if children and adolescents are reached early enough to eliminate the factors that put them at risk.

Tertiary prevention includes treatment and compensatory support which is provided to children who have already suffered sexual abuse or exploitation but where the damage suffered is not permanent. A key element in this level of prevention is the availability and accessibility of treatment and support. Complications can be prevented or cured much more easily if the children or adolescents understand the problem and if those providing the care are aware of the special needs and perceptions of the children seeking care. These services tend to be non-institutionalized and are usually small NGO projects or local community initiatives.

Rehabilitation is necessary for children in situations of permanent or near-permanent difficulty. Such circumstances would include disability, mental impairment from drugs and alcohol abuse, absence of families or effective ties, criminal behavior and persistent conflicts with the law.

Experts and professionals have some of the answers needed to reduce the problems associated with adolescent sexuality and sexual exploitation. But they need the cooperation and support of policy makers, who are often misinformed or ill-advised, to make any impact. Change is needed in institutions, laws and policies if the needs of young people are to be better met. Most initiatives for children and adolescents have been undertaken by NGOs, while the magnitude of the problems associated with adolescent sexuality and sexual exploitation demand that they are addressed at the highest levels of policy and planning by governments and international agencies.

10. Coherent policy and legislation

There are many kinds of policies, laws and regulations which affect the health care and health behaviours of young people. These need to be consistent with one another, to be understood by those who are affected by them, and to be implemented. Unfortunately much legislation of this kind has been created on an ad hoc basis, without focus on the overall welfare of the young person. They are frequently not known by those most affected by them, or may be misunderstood, and are inconsistently implemented. There are many kinds of laws and regulations which affect young people, including: the minimum age for each sex at which marriage and/or sexual relations are permitted; whether adult consent is required for the use of services or access to contraception; laws regarding the sale and consumption of tobacco, alcohol and other drugs; and laws which are designed to protect them, such as those stipulated in the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, on condition that their country has ratified these international instruments. A helpful step in each country is a cross-sectoral review of adolescent health policy, to identify whether explicit policy exists in the public sector.

E. Participation of youth in society

1. Policies to meet the needs of youth

As the World Programme of Action for Youth states, the progress of society depends, to a considerable extent, on its capacity to incorporate the contribution and responsibility of youth in the building and designing of its future. In addition to mobilizing the capacity of youth for supporting today's development policies, their unique perspectives of the immediate future need to be taken into account in the formulation of long-term policies.

The economic, social and political participation of youth largely determines the effectiveness of actions proposed in the World Programme of Action for Youth. As the Jakarta Plan of Action on Human Resources Development advocates, both the means and the results of development should be people-centred, and young people should be given an appropriate position in society to allow them to express their views on the improvement of the social, economic and cultural aspects of society. Policies should be geared toward creating an atmosphere among young people that provides possibilities for bringing about improvements in their own lives and for the future of society as a whole.

Table 2 provides some indicators on youth participation in society.

2. Youth policies

In order to develop fully the aspirations of youth for people-centred development of society, policy makers need to first understand the problems and needs of youth. Policy and programme formulation needs to start with appropriate decision-taking by youth at all levels, including communities, schools and universities at the provincial and national levels, through such means as voting and the provision of appropriate status to youth organizations and leaders.

Based on that understanding, it is an important responsibility of policy makers to develop and implement youth policies that are conducive to youth participation. Effective youth policies can play a major role in creating an "enabling" environment for youth to develop their full potentials and aspirations.

Why do countries need youth policies? The World Programme of Action for Youth identifies some of the reasons why a specific policy for youth is necessary:

Young people in all countries are both a major human resource for development and key agents for social change, economic development and technological innovation. Their imagination, ideals, considerable energies and vision are essential for the continuing development of the societies in which they live. The problems that young people face as well as their vision and aspirations are an essential component of the challenges and prospects of today's societies and future generations. Thus, there is special need for new impetus to be given to the design and implementation of youth policies and programmes at all levels. The ways in which the challenges and potentials of young people are addressed by policy will influence current social and economic conditions and the well-being and livelihood of future generations.

However, for a youth policy to ensure the development of youth as prescribed in the World Programme of Action for Youth, several conditions should be met in its formulation and implementation. First, the policy makers should have objectives in formulating youth policies that are conducive to the development of youth's potential and promotion of their active participation in society. In the survey undertaken by the ESCAP Secretariat on the status of youth policies in the region, it was found that most of the countries of the ESCAP region recognize youth as a positive force. As such, they are focusing their youth policy objectives on the development of the full potential of that portion of their human resource pool in order to ensure the maximum contribution of youth to the development of their societies. In that regard, most countries recognize the importance of providing a suitable environment for the active participation of youth in society. However, the concept of "participation" of youth seems to vary among the countries of the region. Only a limited number of countries clearly include participation of youth in the decision-making process as a part of the objectives of their youth policies. It should be noted that the concept of "participation of youth in national development" should not be interpreted as a means of exploitation and utilization of youth human resources for national development. It should rather imply the participation of youth themselves in the decision-making process of national development. In other words, rather than perceiving youth from a purely objective perspective as resources for national development, it is important to view youth from a subjective perspective as stake-holders and members of society.

Second, while it is important that national youth policy be formulated as independent legislation, it is necessary for countries to integrate such policy into the overall development picture. A policy for youth needs to be related to and coordinated with other national and social policies, and integrated into the overall strategy for development, and it is essential that the particular needs and problems of youth be considered as an integral part of the national planning and policy-making process. A major step towards integration is to ensure that youth policy is not isolated from the other objectives of the national development plan, but incorporated into the documents of the national development plan. A national youth policy should not be treated as a separate plan for young people. It should act across sectoral lines so that the needs of youth and the implications of policies on youth are duly recognized in each of the sectoral development plans. Without the mainstreaming of national youth policy, backed by an appropriate budget allocation and infrastructure for implementation, policy formulation becomes perhaps a futile exercise. In short, in order for youth policy to be truly effective, youth policy should be developed as independent legislation, while at the same time it should be closely integrated into the overall strategy for national development. Further, it is necessary to involve related agencies and ministries in the initial policy formulation stage in order to enlist the collaboration of these agencies in the implementation stage.

Third, policy makers should be mindful of the fact that the implementation of policies and programmes for youth should encompass a broad range of sectors in society, and so require extensive involvement and coordination with a large number of governmental as well as non-governmental actors. Youth policies encompass all facets of life and, for that reason, in addition to the integration of a youth policy into the overall national development framework, appropriate collaborative mechanisms should be put in place at the stage of policy formulation. Policy implementation requires concerted efforts by a number of ministries, agencies and non-governmental bodies. To bring about a collaborative relationship of that nature at the time of implementation, the formulation of policy documents should also involve appropriate consultation and collaboration among the various bodies concerned since they will have to work within the general framework of the national development policy. In this respect, it is noteworthy that the survey conducted by ESCAP revealed that in many countries the youth policy formulation process involved a number of parties, most notably youth organizations (12 countries). According to the responses from other countries, Parliamentary Commissions, the judiciary, law enforcement, political parties, universities and research centres, religious and local communities, and local government had been involved in the youth policy formulation process.

However, coordination in implementation of policies and programmes still remains a major challenge. Experience has shown that the task of coordinating has been an overwhelming function for the national focal point agency, given that most are newly established and lack strong financial backing. In this connection, it may be useful to note the suggestions of the 1993 study by the United Nations on the global situation of youth in the 1990. The study points out that basic conditions have to be fulfilled in order for coordination mechanisms to function effectively. These include: (a) an adequate commitment to, and adequate instruments for, furthering youth policy objectives; (b) a capacity to coordinate on-going activities and to identify areas requiring attention and developmental effort; and (c) development of the proper organizational balance by sufficient government, non-governmental and youth representation. Further, based on past regional experience, it may be concluded that the organizational location, that is, the level of government authority attached to the focal point agency, together with the level of budgetary support, are critical factors that influence the effectiveness of the agency as a coordinating body.

Fourth, the institutional strengthening and appropriate positioning of youth focal point agencies should be considered for effective implementation of youth policies. One strategy, advocated during the International Youth Year: Participation, Development, Peace, was the need to establish appropriate coordination mechanisms within each country in order to encourage the integration of youth issues into overall national development planning. In response to this advocacy, numerous Governments in the region formulated youth policies and created ministries, councils, departments, secretariats and offices which, in many cases, were granted a high level of government authority to promote and implement national youth policies.

However, the mechanisms for implementing youth policies appear to be in need of review in many countries. Ministries or departments responsible for youth affairs are often charged with responsibility for developing policies and programmes which address the mass of unemployed youth, while being left in weak financial and political positions with regard to the coordination of youth activities with other line ministries and NGOs. Even when the coordination efforts with other ministries are successful, the necessary support is often only provided when surplus resources are available after each sectoral ministry has implemented its own programmes. Therefore, in many countries where strong political commitment is absent, youth ministries tend to limit themselves to peripheral activities concerning youth: recreation, culture, sports and mobilization of youth organizations for specific projects. While the creation of youth ministries and equivalent agencies is, in a sense, a manifestation of government support for youth development, the strategic positioning of such institutions, together with adequate financial backing, appears essential to their full and effective functioning.

Fifth, it should be noted by policy makers that they should aim at creating an "enabling" environment through youth policy for different actors to play their roles and realize their aspirations rather than constraining them. In other words, a youth policy should aim, inter alia, towards the promotion of non-governmental youth organizations, by setting up a clear framework for their activities. This may be done by the articulation of a broad but clear policy framework that allows room for flexibility in programme development to tap the creative talents of the concerned parties involved in youth affairs, particularly youth NGOs. The important role of youth policy, in addition to providing an overall framework and direction for youth activities, is to promote the involvement of a wide range of actors, including government, NGOs, the private sector and youth themselves. According to a 1992 report by the Commonwealth Secretariat, a "youth policy should spell out only the broad parameters of work and the general outline of action so that the implementing agencies, especially the NGOs, have adequate scope and freedom to evolve their own programmes and activities on the basis of their philosophy of work, objectives, needs of the beneficiary groups and position of resources." By setting up a clear but broad framework for programme development, a youth policy serves as an effective instrument for mobilizing the different parties concerned in a country, particularly youth organizations, in planning and implementing youth programmes.

A number of initiatives have been taken in the Asian and Pacific region during the course of the decade following International Youth Year in 1985. However, in terms of formulation and implementation of national youth policies and establishment of youth ministries, which were the major recommendations emanated from the observance of the Year, many countries have only begun to take action to set up youth policies and youth ministries and agencies in the 1990s. In addition, the newly developed youth policies have yet to be fully integrated into the overall national development strategies. Youth policies are among the newest type of legislation in many countries of the region, and there is a high demand for regional sharing of experience in their formulation and implementation. The possibilities for regional cooperation in this field, particularly through networking of youth organizations, both governmental and non-governmental, are tremendous. The time is ripe for governments and NGOs to forge ahead with such initiatives.

3. Participation of youth organizations and NGOs

The World Programme of Action for Youth stresses that youth organizations are an important vehicle for development of participation by youth in leadership, promotion of tolerance, and increasing cooperation and exchanges between youth organizations. Youth organizations can provide effective means and opportunities for youth to participate in the mainstream of society. Youth organizations that are closely linked with the communities can bring about the melding of distinctly different issues and concerns of rural and urban youth. While a number of Governments in the region involve youth organizations in the formulation and implementation of youth policies, existing collaborative structures between the government and non-government sectors need to be re-examined and improved.

Many adults believe that young people are the cause of social problems, not the solution; they believe that providing youth with information and knowledge poses a threat to social stability. But the promotion of the health and education of adolescents actually offers tremendous benefits for the public good while also helping youth to fulfil their own potential. The nature of the relationship between adults and adolescents is at the heart of the matter. A positive outlook by an adult is more likely to elicit a positive reaction in an adolescent. For this to happen, there are at least two prerequisites; the basic needs of young people must be met and the opportunity to use their capacities must be provided.

The following areas require improvement on the part of the Governments: formulation of a curriculum of formal education that incorporates survival skills in the context of current socio-economic realities; recognition and appreciation of youth initiative; greater access to information; education and skills training for youth empowerment; and the granting of greater priority to youth programmes.

NGOs are an important channel for youth participation in development. Many NGOs are in regular contact with young people and thus are in a better position to mobilize them for constructive activities at the local and national levels. They are often run by extremely dedicated and experienced youth leaders. What the NGOs need is a wider range of opportunities and recognition by the general public so that the vast resource of energy which youth represents can be put to its best use for society. This can only be done by political will, mutual trust between Governments and NGOs, and networking of youth organizations at the local and national levels. A Youth Ministry or its equivalent in each country could take much of the responsibility in facilitating and preparing such an infrastructure for youth NGOs. Networking, in particular, helps to mobilize NGOs in different fields and with different goals in identifying and tackling common social problems such as drug abuse and HIV/AIDS.

An effective approach to networking should be bottom-up, not top-down, because needs and ideas of development reside with grass-roots experiences. It is at the district level downwards that the beneficiary groups of development are located and it is towards them that programmes should be aimed. To strengthen youth NGOs, the Governments should facilitate their free and uninhibited functioning, feeding their trial-and-error results into the formation of broad national goals. Although some Governments have schemes for giving grants-in-aid to NGOs, an even greater share should go to those working with young people, especially young women. Those NGOs should also be provided with technical support and training facilities for their personnel. Governments could also set up a liaison body among NGOs and between the government and NGOs.

At the micro-level, particularly regarding the participation of rural youth in development, it is essential that a network of small-sized and often non-registered youth clubs (which may be based on agricultural cooperatives, political parties, local chambers of commerce or even Internet circles) be created so that rural youth can be associated with the delivery of the development programme benefits. The youth clubs could act as watch-dogs for the implementation of national and district-level programmes. Ideally, all three participating groups (Governments, NGOs and youth organizations), have complementary roles and responsibilities in providing an infrastructure for youth participation in development.

In summary, efforts should be made to ensure better coordination, not only among government agencies but also between government and NGOs. Existing youth organizations need to be further developed. Non-governmental organizations have played a key role in reaching out to young people with programmes and services as well as in representing their interests. Youth organizations should not be viewed merely as an arm of governmental organizations to be used in reaching the youth population. A youth policy should actually be structured in such a way as to encourage creativity and initiative of youth organizations. Governmental support for youth organizations could take a variety of forms and not just be limited to financial assistance. Such support could be in the form of services and expertise in the planning and implementation of the organizations' activities, bearing in mind the need to maintain the independence of such organizations. One method would be to support a network of youth organizations as a forum for exchanging views and experiences, and for providing opportunities for resource sharing.

F. Conclusion

This chapter focused on emerging issues and trends that are considered to become increasingly important for youth in Asia and the Pacific into the 21st Century. It highlighted 2-3 issues each in the four priority areas of concern for youth in the Asia and the Pacific region, namely, education, employment, health and youth participation, and pointed to some of the new policy considerations in view of those emerging issues. Thus the discussion in this chapter is by no means meant to be comprehensive in its nature.

The four priority areas have been chosen from the 10 issues identified in the World Programme of Action for Youth, taking into account the situation of youth in the region. In terms of education, enhancement of access to basic education is still a major concern in many countries in the region, particularly in South Asia and especially among girls. Since universal access to basic education is a prerequisite for any further advancement in education for youth, the current issue of "access" must be tackled urgently so that the increasingly important issues of "quality" may be granted more attention. The chapter discusses different aspects of "quality" and calls the attention of the policy makers to traditionally neglected aspects, such as education to harness democratic ideas, responsible citizenship, and creativity among young people. It also suggests the importance of roles to be played by non-state actors.

In the area of employment, the current status of severe unemployment among youth is expected to continue or even be further aggravated in the near future in view of the recent economic crisis affecting a number of countries in the region. Governments need to review their policies to promote labour-utilizing investments as called for in the Jakarta Plan of Action on Human Resources Development. Moreover, under the severe labour market situation which is expected to aggravate into the next century, this chapter emphasizes the need for young entrepreneurs to be given appropriate support and encouragement for self-employment opportunities, including those in informal sector activities. Such labour market policy also needs to take into consideration the rapid urbanization trend found in a number of countries in Asia and the Pacific and the large number of young people flowing into the big cities. Rural youth should be given information and other forms of support so that they are not easily uprooted from their own community and without productive job opportunities. The issue of vulnerability of young people in the labour market needs to be also tackled through efforts to eliminate child labour, particularly in its most intolerable forms. At present, the ESCAP region is home to approximately 61 per cent of the global number of child labourers.

In terms of the health concerns of young people, issues of reproductive health and sexuality are highlighted. In many countries of Asia and the Pacific, adolescents are neglected in sexual and reproductive health policies and programmes, despite the fact that many marry during the early stage of their adolescence. Information and services to protect them from unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS, are necessary. It is reported that more than two million people have been infected with HIV in the East and South-East Asian subregions, which undoubtedly will become an even more serious problem in the next century. The particular vulnerability of young women deserves special attention in this regard. Further, the prevalent practices of sexual abuse (rape and incest) and sexual exploitation (trafficking, pornography and prostitution) in many countries of Asia require legal and other urgent measures to be taken on the part of the governments, including subregional and regional coordination.

Finally, in view of the increasing need for young people to take charge of their own destiny, as well as the need for society as a whole to harness the energy and new ideas of young people, the chapter strongly advocates the need to promote the participation of young people in decision-making processes. Formulation and effective implementation of appropriate youth policies are among the important measures that governments in the region can undertake to this end. Youth, as a positive force in the creation of society's future, need to be given opportunities and support to realize their own aspirations.

REFERENCES

Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) (1997). Asia Pacific Population Journal, Vol. 12, No. 3.______ (1997). Asia Pacific Population Journal, Vol. 12, No. 2.

International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF), Undated, Understanding Adolescents.

Kaime-Atterhoeg (1997). Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children: a desk study of the health consequences and interventions with special reference to developing countries, unpublished paper.

World Health Organization (WHO) (1993). The Health of Young People: A Challenge and a Promise, Geneva.